ʈォォ|20IAJOɂYȊw|

͉̲͛ͅ

ȁͺις΃ࣣਤ࣭͉́Ȅ૒ྦྷ౷শయ̥ͣ18ଲܮ฼͊́͘Ȅ੄ॲ͉੩ॲ঍ͬ੝̱͛͂̀੫଻͈૶ ୚Ȇ࿻૽̈́̓Ȅ੫଻ో͈͙͈ၛ̻̞࣐̞̹ٛ́ͩͦ̀ȃ̭̦͂ͧ1760ාయոࣛȄπȜυΛΏ ॲشڠͬڠ̺ͭ֓঍̦Ȅͺις΃ཤ൐໐സঌ͈ಎȆષၠٴݭ͈੄ॲͅၛ̻̠̠̹ٛ̈́̽͢ͅȃ ոࢃȄ19ଲܮͬ೒̱̀੩ॲ͈౜̞਀͉੩ॲ঍̥ͣ֓঍͒͂֊࣐̳ͥȃ̷ͦͬخෝ̱̹͈͉ͅȄ ౳଻֓঍͉੫଻̦਋̧̫̭͈̞ͥ͂́̈́֓ڠޗ֗ͬ਋̫̞̦̀ͥ࡬ͅȄհ஠́ౣশۼ́೑͙͈ ઁ̞̈́੄ॲͬ࿩௵̱̩̀ͦͥȄ๊̞̠֚͂എ̈́ͼιȜΐ̜̹́̽ȃ̱̥̱̦̈́ͣ৘ष͉ͅȄ20 ଲܮ੝൮́֓͘঍̦਋̫̞̹̀ॲشڠޗ͉֗ၑაഎ́ႉ઄ࠐࡑ̦ະ௷̱̤̀ͤȄ๞̦ͣྫ౶́ ̜ͥ͂ࡉ̱̞̹̈́̀੩ॲ঍͂൳̲̩̞ͣఉ̩͈ۛ৪ͬঘཌ̵̯̞̹̀ȃ̷͈̹͛Ȅ̷͈̭̦͂ ྶ̥ͣ̈́ͥ͂ͅȄॲش͉֓ॲشڠޗ͈֗٨ڟ͈ຈါ଻̲̠̹ͬۜͥ̈́̽͢ͅȃ ȁུࣂ͉Ȅ20ଲܮ੝൮͈ͺις΃̤̞̀ͅȄॲشڠ̦֓ၷ͈୺࿝໦࿤̱͈͂̀౷պ͂ࡀրͬڕ ංً̳ͥ೾́Ȅॲشڠޗ̦֗ض̹̱̹࿨ڬͬྶ̥̱̠̳͈̜ͣ͂ͥ́ͥ͢͜ͅȃॲشڠޗ֗ ̪݈ͬ͛ͥა͉Ȅ൚শͺις΃͈ॲشڠ̦ೄ࿂̱̞̹̀࿚ఴ̩࡛̱̞̹ͬ̀͢ȃ20ଲܮ੝൮ ͉ͅȄॲش୺࿝֓͂Ȅࢩํս̹ͩͥ֓ͅၷުྩ͈֚໐̱͂̀੄ॲͬ৾ͤե๊̠֚֓Ȫgeneral practitionerȫ͈͂ۼͅȨ͉̱̹̏̽ͤ͂ޏٮ஌͉̥̹̈́̽ȃ๊֚֓͜ॲش୺࿝֓͜੄ॲͅၛ ̻̹̦ٛ̽Ȅၰ༷͂֓͜঍̜́ͤచ൝̜̹́̽ȃ;ͻςͺθȆτͼȆͺȜΣȜȪWilliam Ray Arneyȫ͉Ȅޏٮ஌̦ᔛཾ̜̹͈́̽́Ȅ୺࿝͈֓आུഎ̈́ह༷ͤͅ۾̳݈ͥა̦̭̹͈ܳ̽ ͉͕͂ͭ̓ຈடഎ̜̹́̽͂ঐഊ̱̞̀ͥȃΏ΃Ό͈ॲش֓ΐοΔέȆδςό͹ȜȆΟςȜ ȪJoseph Bolivar DeLeeȫͬಎ૤̳͂ͥਬ౬͉Ȅॲشڠ֚ͬၠ͈୺࿝૖̳̭ͥ͂ͬͅབ̺ͭȃ

ఈ༷ȄΐοϋΒȆγί΅ϋΒఱڠ͈ॲشڠޗ਎ΐοϋȆγͼΛΠςΛΐȆ;ͻςͺθΒȪJohn Whitridge Williamsȫͬಎ૤̳͂ͥਬ౬͉Ȅॲشڠͬ໹޳എ̈́֓঍͈ຈါͅ؊̲̹͈ͥ͛໹ ൝৽݅എ̈́୺࿝૖̳̭ͥ͂ͬͅབ̺ͭ1)_{ȃ੄ॲ͞ॲشڠͅ۾̳݈ͥა͉Ȅ৘ष๊͉֚֓ͬ̓ͅ} ̠̳̥ͥȄ̳̻̈́ͩȄ๞ͣͬ୺࿝ز̱͂̀༫܄̷̳͈̥ͥͦ͂͜ෳੰ̳͈̥ͥȄ̞̠݈͂ა́ ̜̹̽ȃ̭͈݈ა̤̫ͥͅॲش͈֓ၛા͉Ȅॲشڠ̞̠͂୺࿝໦࿤ͬఈ͈֓ၷ୺࿝໦࿤̥ͣ໦ ၗ̵̯̭ͥ͂ͬབ͚͈̥Ȅ̷ͦ͂͜ॲشڠ̦๱୺࿝๊̜͈֚֓́ͥ֓ຈါͅ؊̲̭ͥ͂ͬབ͚ ͈̥ͅܖ̞̞̹̿̀ȃ

ˍȁॲشڠޗ͈֗٨ڟ͈ຈါ଻

ȁ1765ාͅͺις΃́ड੝͈֓ڠࢷ̦୭ၛ̯̥ͦ̀ͣତ਱ාۼ͉Ȅୃ͈ܰ֓ڠޗ͉͕֗͂ͭ̓ ࣒݅ࠁ৆͈͙́Ȅດ੔എ̈́ޗش੥͞Ȅޗ֥̦ڠ୆শయͅৢ̱̹৾̽ΦȜΠ಼̢͈͉ͬͥ́̈́͜ ̥̹̽ȃ19ଲܮஜ฼͈֓ڠޗ֗৪͉Ȅ̱̱࣒͊͊݅ͅރ။ͬح̢Ȅڠ୆ٜͅཎ͞ٸش਀੅̈́̓ ͈࣐ևͬࡉͥܥٛͬ೹ރ̱̹ȃ1890ාయ́͘ͅȄ̞̩̥͈̾֓ڠࢷ͉́৘ࡑ͞ႉ઄࣐̠̭ͬ͂ ͬڠ୆ͅါݥ̳̠̞̹̦ͥ̈́̽̀͢ͅȄ̷͉ͦවڠ঩ڒ͞ޗ֗ܢۼȄڠා༆၎ਘه೾̈́̓ͅ຀ ഌ̳ͥਹါ̈́ޗ֗٨ڟ̜̹́̽ȃஜႉ઄֓ڠȪ֓ڠޗ͈֗ه೾̤̫ͥͅܖய֓ڠȫ͈ڠ୆̦৘ ࡑ৒ͅව͈ͥ͂໹࣐̱̀Ȅષݭ͈ڠ୆ུ͉໤͈ۛ৪ͬ૷ख़̱Ȅ৘ष͈੄ॲͬ੩̫Ȅٸش਀੅ ͬ਀ഥ̞ই̹͛ȃ̱̥̱Ḙ͉̏ͦͺις΃͈̳͓͈̀֓ڠࢷͅ൚͉̹̫͉̥̀̽ͩ́̈́̽͘ ̹2)_ȃ

ȁͺις΃֓঍ٛȪ˝˩˝ȇAmerican Medical Associationȫ͉1904ාͅȄ֓ڠޗ֗ފ݈ٛȪ˟ ˩ˡȇCouncil on Medical Educationȫͬ୭ၛ̱̹ȃ˟˩ˡ͉1906ාͅͺις΃͈֓ڠࢷͬࢩ ํս̹ͩ̽̀ͅ಺औ̱ই͛Ȅ֓ڠࢷͬ˝ݭȪယ෇خෝȫȄ˞ݭȪယ෇ࣾඳȫȄ˟ݭȪယ෇ະخෝȫ ͈२౲ٴ́ບث̱̹ȃ1906ා̥ͣ07ාͅণख़̯̹ͦ160ࢷ͈̠̻Ȅ82ࢷ̦˝ݭȄ46ࢷ̦˞ݭȄ 32ࢷ̦˟ݭ͂ບث̯̹ͦȃڠࢷ͈ྴஜ͉࢖ນ̯̥̹̦ͦ̈́̽Ȅڎڠࢷͅບث̦౶̯ͣͦȄڎਗ

͈྾ݺ෇೰ܥ۾ͅ༭̯̹࣬ͦȃ̷̱̀ਗ֓঍͉ٛ֓ڠޗ͈֗٨ڟͬ௯̯̹ͦ3)_ȃ

ȁ ˟ ˩ ˡ ͉ ͘ ̹Ȅ ΃ Ȝ Υ Ά Ȝ ़ ౬ ޗ ֗ ௯ ૺ տ ֥ ٛȪThe Carnegie Foundation for the

Advancement of Teachingȫ͈੩଼߄ͬڕං̱Ȅͺις΃͂΃΢Θ̤̫ͥ֓ͅڠޗ͈֗಺औͬȄ ޗ֗৪΀ͼήρΧθȆέτ·Α΢ȜȪAbraham Flexnerȫͅջှ̱̹ȃέτ·Α΢Ȝ͉1866 ාͅΉϋΗΛ΅ȜਗσͼόͻσͅȄΡͼΜࠏξΘμ૽֊ྦྷ͈௳ঊ̱͂̀୆̹ͦ͘ȃ࿩20ාۼ͈ ޗ֥୆ڰ͈ࢃȄΧȜό͹ȜΡఱڠ́ഓڠਘআ࣢ͬ৾ං̱Ȅ1906ාͅΡͼΜͅၣڠȄ1907ාͅͺ ις΃ͅܦ࣭̱̀ΣνȜπȜ·ͅ֊ͤਯ͙Ȅ΃ȜΥΆȜ़౬ޗ֗௯ૺտ֥ٛ́૖ͬݥ̹͛ȃ΃ ȜΥΆȜ़౬͈ٛಿΰϋςȜȆ˯ȆίςΙͿΛΠȪHenry S. Pritchettȫ͉Ȅͺις΃͈ౙش ఱڠ͈৻തȄඅ̷͈ͅ࿒എ͈ᔛཾ̯͂౶എܖ੔͈ࠧශȄ௙ࣣఱڠ͈͒ൡࣣ̹̯̽̀ͣͦ͢͜ͅ ͥई၄ͅ۾̱̀Ȅέτ·Α΢Ȝ͈आུഎ̈́ࣉ̢ͅ൳փ̱̞̹̀ȃ̱̥̱ȄίςΙͿΛΠ̶̦̈́ έτ·Α΢Ȝͬनဥ̱̹͈̥͉Ȅޗ֗ঃષ͈ඨ͈̜͌͂̾́ͥȃ̷͈ࢃ͈΃ȜΥΆȜ़౬͈಺ औ͉Ȅ߱Ⴏͬ਋̫̹୺࿝زͅջှ̯̞̦ͦ̀ͥȄέτ·Α΢Ȝ͉֓ڠࢷͅहୠ̱̹̭͉֚͂ഽ ̥̹̈́̽͜ȃ̷̤̩ͣίςΙͿΛΠ͉Ȅέτ·Α΢Ȝ͈૽໻Ȅু૞Ȅ࡛ેͬఱ౨ͅ๡฻̳ͥփ ဳȄ̷̱̀ྶږ́נ̞໲ડͬ੥̩ෝႁۜͅྐྵͬ਋̫̹͈̜̠́ͧȃ̯ͣͅίςΙͿΛΠ͉Ȅέ τ·Α΢Ȝ̦ΧȜό͹ȜΡఱڠ͈ڠಿΙλȜσΒȆ˳Ȇ΀ς΂ΛΠȪCharles W. Eliotȫ̥ͣ રॷ̯̤ͦ̀ͤȄ̹͘Ȅಠྴ̈́ພၑڠȆळ޿ڠ৪̜́ͤȄ1898ා̥ͣ99ා́͘ΐοϋΒȆγί ΅ϋΒఱڠ͈ພၑڠޗ਎Ȅ1903ා̥ͣ35ා́͘υΛ·έͿρȜ֓ڠࡄݪਫ਼͈֓ڠ໐ಿͬྩ̹͛ ߻΍ͼκϋȆέτ·Α΢ȜȪSimon Flexnerȫͬ೒̱̀ȄΐοϋΒȆγί΅ϋΒఱڠͬಎ૤͂

̳ͥ֓ڠޗ֗ٮͅ૽ྤͬ঵̞̭̽̀ͥ͂ͬ౶̞̹̽̀4)_ȃ ȁέτ·Α΢Ȝ͉ͺις΃͂΃΢Θ͈150ࢷոષ͈֓ڠࢷͬང࿚̱Ȅ֓ڠ୆̦਋̫̞̀ͥޗ֗ ͈ৗͬ௶೰̱̀1910ාͅडਞ༭࣬੥ͬۏ࣐̱̹ȃ๞͉වڠ঩ڒȄޗ਎͈૽ତ͂ෝႁȄ़ଽેఠȄ ࡄݪ৒͈ৗȄ۾Ⴒພ֭͂֓ڠࢷ͈͂۾߸̈́̓ͅܖ̞̿̀ڎࢷͬບث̱̹ȃ̷͈ࠫضȄఱ໐໦͈ ֓ڠࢷ͉වڠܖ੔̦೩̩Ȅޗ਎͉ෝႁະ௷́୭๵͉ະ਱໦̜́ͤȄޗ਎͈߄࿏̫͈̹͈͛জܑ ު͈̠̞̭̦̈́̽̀ͥ͂͢ͅྶ̥̹ͣ̈́̽ͅȃ༭࣬੥͉́ȄΡͼΜ͉ͅ૽࢛2,000૽൚̹֚ͤ ૽͈֓঍Ȅఱസঌ͉́૽࢛1,000૽൚̹֚ͤ૽͈֓঍̦̞͈ͥͅచ̱̀Ȅȶͺις΃஠ఘ̳́́ ͅ໹޳̱̀૽࢛568૽൚̹֚ͤ૽͈֓঍̦̤ͤȄఱസঌ͉́૽࢛400૽̷̜̞͉ͥͦոئ֚ͅ૽ ͈֓঍Ȅ̷̱̀ਯ૽200૽ոئ͈઀̯̈́಴͉ͅڎșඵ૽̥ͣ२૽͈֓঍̦̞ͥȷ͂Ȅͺις΃ ̤̫ͥ֓ͅ঍઼ً͈ͬঐഊ̱̞̹̀ȃ̷̱̀ȶِș͈ޗ༹༷̦֗Ȅ೩କ੔͈Ȯ֓঍͈ȯఱၾً ઼୆ॲ̹̱ͬͣ̀͜ȷ̤ͤȄ̷ً͉ͦݲ̤̞͉̀ͅୃ൚ا̯̹̱ͦ͂̀͜Ȅ࡛ह͈ેޙ͉́Ȅ ல՛̈́֓঍ͬ௩ح̵̯ͥͤ͢͜Ȅઁତ̧͈̻̱̹ͭ͂߱Ⴏͬ਋̫̹֓঍༷̦ͬ֗̀ͥ࢘ضഎ́ ̜ͥ͂ࠫა̱Ȅ֓ڠޗ͈֗٨ڟ͈ຈါ଻ͬ৽ಫ̱̹ȃ̷̭́έτ·Α΢Ȝ͉Ȅ֓ڠࢷͅවڠ̳ ͥஜͅඵාۼ͈ఱڠޗ֗ͬ਋̫̭ͥ͂Ȅঅාଷ͈֓ڠ၎ਘه೾͉́Ȅड੝͈ඵාۼͬ৽ͅ৘ࡑ شڠȪٜཎڠȄ୆ၑڠȄ࿪ၑڠȄພၑڠȫͅȄ̷͈ࢃ͈ඵාۼͬඤشڠȄٸشڠȄॲشڠ͈ႉ ઄ࡄݪͅਰ̭̀ͥ͂Ȅ̯ͣ֓ͅڠࢷ઼ً͈ેఠͬ۱გ̳̹ͥ͛Ȅ֓ڠࢷ͈ତ࡛ͬह͈155ࢷ̥ ͣ31ࢷͅॉࡘ̳̭ͥ͂̈́̓ͬۑ̱̹࣬5)_ȃ ȁ1910ා͈༭࣬੥͈ಎ́έτ·Α΢Ȝ͉Ȅ̳͓͈̀ႉ઄ش࿒͈ಎ́ॲشڠͬඅͅࡕ̱̩๡฻̱Ȅ ȶॲشڠ́ड՛͈အ௖ͬ೮̱̞̀ͥȷ͂ঐഊ̱̹ȃ๞͉Ȅȶၰ༷͈ۛ৪Ƚ༦૶͂ঊރȽ͈հ஠͂ քհ͉Ȅ֓঍͈߱Ⴏ̯̹ۭͦࢌ͂਀ष͈ၻ̯ষల̜́ͥȃȮॲشȯ֓ၷ͉ȤȤࣞഽ̈́ܿ੅ͬါ ̳ͥॽম̜́ͥȃഐ୨̈́୭๵͈ା̹̽ॲشພ̤̞͈͙֭̀ͅȄࡔၑȄ༹༷Ȅܿ੅ͬڠ̭̦͐͂ ̧́Ȅܿෝͬਠං̧̳̭̦͈̜ͥ͂́ͥ́ͥȷ͂৽ಫ̱̹ȃ̱̥̱̦̈́ͣ৘ष͈ॲشڠޗ͉֗Ȅ ๞ͦ͊͢ͅȄȶ࣒͉݅஠̩࿨ͅၛ̹̥̹̈́̽ȃ૽ఘٜཎ࿅߿͉Ȅࡠ̹ͣͦ೾ഽ̱̥ث౵̦̥̈́ ̹̽ȷȃ̷̱̀ఉ̩͈ڠ୆͉Ȅ̴͕͂ͭ̓͘৘ष͈੄ॲͬࡉ̞̥̹̀̈́̽ȃఉ̩͈֓ڠࢷ͉ພ ͈֭́ႉ઄ࠐࡑ͕ͬ͂ͭ̓೹ރ̵̴Ȅڠ୆͉ȶ੩ॲ঍͕͂͂ͭ̓൳̲߱Ⴏȷ̱̥਋̫̞̞̀̈́ ͂Ȅέτ·Α΢Ȝ͉౯࡞̱̹6)_ȃ ȁέτ·Α΢Ȝ༭͈࣬ࢃȄ;ͻςͺθΒ֓঍̦Ȅॲشڠޗ֗͂੩ॲ঍࿚ఴͅ۾̳ͥ಺औ࣐ͬ̽ ̹ȃ๞͉অාଷ͈ޗ֗ه೾̦̜ͥ120͈֓ڠࢷ͈ޗ਎ͅ࿩50࿚̹ͩͥͅৗ࿚ນͬ௣ͤȄ43૽͈ ޗ਎̥ͣٝ൞ͬං̹ȃٝ൞͉Ȅ˟˩ˡ̦ယ෇خෝ͂ບث̱̹ڠࢷ61ࢷ͈̠̻͈31ࢷȄယ෇ະخ ෝ̱̹͂ڠࢷ59ࢷ͈̠̻͈11ࢷ̥ͣං̹̦ͣͦȄ΃΢Θ̥͈͈͉ͣ͜܄̞̞ͦ̀̈́͘7)_ȃৗ࿚ ͅచ̳ͥٝ൞͉Ȅͺις΃̤̫ͥͅॲشڠޗ͈֗ౚ̥̱̞ͩેޙͬা̱̞̹̀ȃ۰ࠩͅ੆͓ͥ ͂ոئ͈೒̜ͤ́ͥȃల֚ͅȄޗ਎͈ఉ̩͉ୣྩͬض̹̳ෝႁ̦ྫ̩Ȅޗ਎૖͈݅ྩ̞̾̀ͅ ͕͂ͭ̓ࣉ̢ͬ঵̞̞̽̀̈́ȃలඵͅȄ̥͈̈́ͤڬࣣ͈ޗ਎͉ॲش͈޽ݢমఠͅచੜ̳̭ͥ͂

̧̦̞́̈́ȃల२ͅȄ͕̳͓͈͂ͭ̓̀ޗ਎̦Ȅഐ୨̈́ॲشڠޗ͈̹͈֗͛ޗ֗Ȇພ֭୭๵̦ ະ਱໦̜́ͥ͂ະྖͬ੆͓̞̀ͥȃలঅͅȄड͜૬࣫̈́࿚ఴ̱͂̀Ȅޗ਎͈ఉ̩̦Ȅ໹޳എ̈́ ๊͉֚֓ॲشުྩ࣐̠ͬ੔๵̴̧̦̤́̀ͣȄ๱ુͅటఐ̈́੩ॲ঍͂൳̲̩̞ͣఉ̩͈੫଻ͅ ܓٺͬဓ̢̞̀ͥ͂෇̞͛̀ͥȃ̷͈ࠫض;ͻςͺθΒ͉Ȅȶِ̦࣭͈੫଻͂ঊރ͈໛ছ̜ͥ ̞͉֓ڠޗ͈֗࿚ఴͅ۾૤ͬ༴̞̞̀ͥ࢖ୃ̈́૽ۼ̈́ͣ͊Ȅષܱ͈༭࣬ͬඋ͛͊փܨકೆ̱̀Ȅ ޽ݢͅ٨ڟ̦ຈါ̈́মఠِͅș̦ೄ࿂̱̞̞̠̭̀ͥ͂͂ͬ෇̴͉̞̞͛ͣͦ̈́ͅȷ͂ږ૞̱ ̹8)_ȃ ȁ̷̱̭͈̠̀̈́͢ॲشڠޗ͈֗ࠧۿ͈ࡔ֦͉Ȅ֓ڠࢷ͈ຫ৻̯Ȅޗ਎͈ၑே͈೩̯Ȅ๊֚ఱ ਤ͈ྫ౶̜̱ͥ͂ͅȄոئ͈̠̈́͢٨ڟ̦ຈါ̜́ͥ͂;ͻςͺθΒ͉੆͓̹ȃల֚ͅȄͤ͢ ࿹̷̹̱ͦ̀ഐ୨̈́୭๵͈ା̹̽֓ڠࢷȄలඵͅȄ֓ڠࢷ͈ڠ୆ͅచ̳̞ͥͤࣞ͢වڠܖ੔Ȅ ల२ͅȄ̞ࣞၑேͬ༴̧شڠഎ̈́߱Ⴏͬ਋̫̹ॲشڠޗ਎ȄలঅͅȄॲشڠ஠ఘ͈କ੔͈࢜ષȄ లࡼͅȄ๊֚֓ͅచ̳ͥޗ֗Ȅల჋ͅȄ๊֚ఱਤͅచ̳ͥޗ֗Ȅల্ͅȄॲش঴஝ພ͈֭อജȄ లสͅȄͤ͢հثۭ̈́ࢌ঍Ȅల߇ͅḘ̏͂ͥ͂͢ͅ੩ॲ঍͈߱Ⴏ̜́ͥȃ̱̥̱੩ॲ঍ͅ۾̱ ͉̀Ȅȶ̞̥̈́ͥޗ༹༷֗̽̀͢͜ͅ૭̱໦͈̞̈́੩ॲ঍ͬူ଼̳ͥخෝ଻ͅ۾̱͉̀Ȅ๱ુ ̱̞݃ͩͅȷ͂ࣉ̢̞̹͈̀́Ȅȶઁ̩̈́͂͜ఱസঌ͉́Ȅ੩ॲ঍͈ஞૺഎ෱গ͂Ȅॲش঴஝ ພ͈֭ಠ̱̞ڐಫ̦੩ॲ঍৾̽̀ͅయ̭ͩͥ͂ͬ঑঵ȷ̱̹9)_{ȃ̭͈ͦͣ಺औ̽̀͢ͅྶ̥ͣ} ̯̹ͦͅॲشڠޗ͈֗ޥ̧̩͓৘ఠ͉Ȅॲش֓ͅޗ͈֗٨ڟ͈ຈါ଻ͬޑ̩෇ে̵̯̭ͥ͂ͅ ̹̈́̽ȃ ȁॲشڠޗ͈֗٨ڟ͈ຈါ଻͉Ȅ༦૶͂඿ဘ঱͈ঘཌၚͬ೩ئ̵̯̠̞̠ͥ͂͢ͅ২ٛഎգႁ ̽̀͢͜ͅޑا̯̹ͦȃ1917ාͅ঱ൺޫ͈ΈτȜΑȆιΛΈΒȪGrace Meigsȫ֓঍̽̀͢ͅ ༦ఘঘཌၚͅ۾̳ͥࡄݪ̦༭̯࣬ͦͥ͂Ȅͺις΃̤̫ͥͅළૡȆ੄ॲͥ͢ͅ༦ఘঘཌၚ͈ࣞ ̯̦֓ၷ୺࿝ز͈ۼ́૬࣫̈́࿚ఴ̱͂̀෇ে̯̠̹ͦͥ̈́̽͢ͅȃιΛΈΒ͈༭࣬੥͉Ȅͺι ς΃̤̞̀ͅ15प̥ͣ45प͈੫଻͈ළૡȆ੄ॲͥ͢ͅঘཌ͉Ȅࠫړͅষ̪ঘཌࡔ֦̜̭́ͥ͂ ͬྶ̥̱̹ͣͅȃ̷̱̀1900ාոࣛȄࠫړȄΙέΑ෎ȄΐέΞςͺȄ྄ܺ଻࢞൮׶Ȅ̷͈ఈထ ཡخෝ̈́ພܨ͈ঘཌၚ͉ఱ̧̩೩ئ̱̞͈̀ͥͅ༦ఘঘཌၚ̦೩ئ̱̞̞͈͉̀̈́Ȅྫ౶͂ట ྕ̦ࡔ֦̜̱̞̹́ͥ͂̀ȃ̹͘༭࣬੥͉Ȅͺις΃̤̫ͥͅළૡȆ੄ॲͥ͢ͅ༦ఘঘཌၚͬ ٸ̷࣭͈ͦ͂๤ڛ̱̤̀ͤȄͺις΃͈༦ఘঘཌၚ͈೩̯͉৽ါ࣭16̥࣭ಎ14պ̜́ͤȄΑͼ Α͂Αβͼϋ̷͈ͦͤ͢͜೩ً̨̞̞̭̈́͂ͬͅྶ̥̱̹ͣͅ10)_ȃ ȁ̷͈ࢃȄළॲິ͈ঘཌ͂༦଻༗ࢌͅ۾̳ͥఉତ͈༭࣬੥̦࢖ນ̯̹ͦȃ༦ঊ͈࠲ࢫ̞̾ͅ ͈̀ࡀր̜̹́̽ΣνȜπȜ·͈˯ȆΐοΔέͻϋȆαȜ΃ȜȪS. Josephine Bakerȫ֓঍ ͉Ȅ1927ා͈˝˩˝ల78ٝාষఱ͈ٛॲິ૽شȆໜ໐ٸشڠ໐ٛȪSection on Obstetrics, Gynecology and Abdominal Surgeryȫ̤̞̀ͅȄड૧͈ൡࠗ́͜ͺις΃͈༦ఘঘཌၚ͈೩ ̯͉20̥࣭ಎ19պͅպ౾̱̤̀ͤȄͺις΃ͤ͢༦ఘঘཌၚ̦̞͈͉ࣞΙς̺̫̜̭́ͥ͂ͬ

ྶ̥̱̹ͣͅȃͺις΃͈༦ఘঘཌၚ͉ȄΟϋζȜ·ȄͼΗςͺȄ඾ུȄ΂ρϋΘȄΣνȜΐ ȜρϋΡȄΑ;ͿȜΟϋ͈ඵ෼ոષ̜̹́̽ȃ̷̱̀αȜ΃Ȝ͉Ȅȶ੄ॲ̤̫ͥͅ୆ంخෝ଻ ͬࣉၪ̳ͥࡠͤȄͺις΃͉ළૡ̱̹੫଻͂̽̀ͅଲٮ́ड͜ܓࡏ࣭̈́ͅ߃̞ȷ͂੆͓̹ȃ̯ ̭͈̠ͣ̈́͢ͅ༦ఘঘཌၚ͉Ȅ࡛ह͈հ஠౶েͅܖ̞̿̀੄ॲ̢࣐ͬ͊Ȅઁ̩̈́͂͜฼໦Ȅ̤ ̷̩͉ͣ२໦͈ඵ͉ࡘ̧̳̭̦ͣ͂́ͥ͂ঐഊ̱̹11)_ȃ ȁ̭̠̱̀Ȅͺις΃̤̫ͥͅ੄ॲͥ͢ͅ༦ఘঘཌၚ̦ఈ࣭͂๤ڛ̱̞̭̦̀ࣞ͂ྶ̥ͣ̈́ͅ ͥ͂Ȅॲش͉֓Ȅ֓ڠࢷ́ڠ୆ͅ೹ރ̯ͦͥॲشڠޗ̞֗̾̀ͅࣉၪ̳̠̹ͥ̈́̽͢ͅȃ֓ၷ ܿ੅̦٨஝̯ͦȄ֚໐͈֓ڠࢷ͉́࿹̹ͦޗ̦֗೹ރ̯̞̹̦ͦ̀Ȅ1920ාయ̈́̽̀͜ͅॲش ڠޗ͉֗ͅڒओ̦ంह̱̞̹̀ȃυȜτϋΑȆˠȆυϋΌȪLawrence D. Longoȫ͉Ȅॲشڠ ͂ິ૽شڠ̤̫ͥ֓ͅڠޗ͈֗࿚ఴത͈͉͌͂̾Ȅ̷͈࿒എ̦ྶږ̯̞̥̹̭ͦ̀̈́̽͂́ͅ ̜ͥ͂ঐഊ̱̞̀ͥȃ̳̻̈́ͩȄڠ໐ޗ̤̫֗ͥͅ࿒ດ͉ة̥ȃڠ໐̤̫ͥͅॲشڠޗ͈֗࿒ ດ͉Ȅڠ୆̦̳͓͈̀ॲشڠഎ࿚ఴͬੜၑ̧̳̭̦̠̳̭̥ͥ͂́ͥͥ͂͢ͅȃ̷̱̠́̈́͜ ̫ͦ͊Ȅ๊͉͈̠֚֓̓̈́͢ॲشڠഎ࿚ఴͬ৾ͤե̠̠߱͢ͅႯ̧̯͓̥ͦͥȃޗ͉֗ܿ੅എ ௰࿂̧̫͓̥࢜ͣͦͥͅȄ̷ͦ͂͜୆૓ً೾͈୆ၑڠഎၑٜͬޑ಺̧̳͓̥ȃड੝͈ඵාۼ͈ ܖயشڠޗ̤̞͉֗̀ͅܖུഎ̈́୆ၑڠഎࢹ௮ͬޗ̢̀ႉ઄എ௰࿂͉२ා࿒̥অා࿒́͘ಁͣ ̵̧͓̥ͥȄ̷ͦ͂͜ழ̵͙ࣣͩ̀ޗ̢̧͓̥ͥȃً̳́ͅྟ̈́ΑΉΐνȜσ̤̞̀ͅȄॲش ڠ໦࿤͈ޗ֗ͅਰ̀ͥশۼ̠̳͈̥ͬ̓ͥȄ̞̹͂̽࿚ఴ̜́ͥ12)_ȃ ȁ̷͉ͦ́Ȅ20ଲܮ੝൮́͘Ȅ֓ڠ୆͉͈̠̓̈́͢ॲشڠޗ֗ͬ਋̫̞̹͈̜̠̥̀́ͧȃͺ ις΃͉́18ଲܮࢃ฼̥ͣॲشڠ͈࣒ਠ̦੄࡛̱̹̦Ȅ൚শ͈ޗ͉࣒̦֗݅ಎ૤̜́ͤȄ֓ڠ ୆͉हڠಎͅ৘ष͈੄ॲ֚ͬഽ͜܉̳̭̩ͥ͂̈́ͅȄ֓ڠࢷͬ௾ު̱̀֓঍̧̱̞͂̀̈́ͤ੄ ॲ͈࡛ાͅၛ̻̫̞̭̩̜̹ٛͩ̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́͂̽͜͢ȃ19ଲܮ฼͊ոࣛȄ֚໐͈֓ڠࢷ̦ރ ။੩ॲȪdemonstrative midwiferyȫͬٳই̱Ȅ৘षͅ੄ॲ̱̞̀ͥ੫଻ͬڠ୆ͅࡉ̵̀ႉ઄ ޗ࣐̠̠̹̦֗ͬ̈́̽͢ͅ13)_{Ȅ੄ॲͬ۷ख़̧̳̭̦̹͈͉ͥ͂́ࢨ׋̈́ڠ୆̺̫̜̹́̽ȃ႕} ̢͊ಎୌ໐́ड͈ࣞڠࢷ͂ࣉ̢̞̹ͣͦ̀ηΏ΄ϋఱڠ͉́Ȅ၎ਘه೾͈̠̻382শۼ̦ॲش ڠ͂ິ૽شڠͅਰ̞̹̦̀ͣͦ̀Ȅఱఉତ͈ڠ୆͉ٴ౲ޗ৒͈́ႉ઄৘ਠ͈শۼ͈ఱ໐໦ͬȶة ͜ࡉ̴̢Ȅ਀੅ర̭̞̭͕́ܳ̽̀ͥ͂ͬ͂ͭ̓ၑ̧ٜ̞́̈́Ȅ਀੅৒̥̞ͣࣞાਫ਼̜ͥͅࡥ ̞ಿֆঊͅȷजً̮̱̹̽̀14)_{ȃ1870ා̥ͣ91ාͅΦȜΑ;ͿΑΗϋఱڠ֓ڠ໐ͅ੄୘̱̹ڠ} ୆͉Ȅڠࢷ͈ٴ౲ޗ৒́੄ॲ̱̩̠̀ͦͥ͢ͅॲິͬฃਓ̧̳̭̦̹ͥ͂́ાࣣ͈͙ͅȄ੄ॲ ͬࡉ̧̭̦̹ͥ͂́15)_{ȃ̱̥̱Ȅఉ̩͈֓ڠࢷ͉̭͈ڟ૧എޗ֗ͬ਋̫ව̴ͦȄޗش੥͂૽ఘ} ٜཎ࿅߿͈͙́ॲشڠͬޗ̢௽̫̹ȃ ȁ̭̠̱̀Ȅఱఉତ͈ڠ୆͉͕̜̞͉͂ͭ̓ͥ஠̩৘ष͈੄ॲͅၛ̴̻ٛͩͅ௾ު̱̹ȃιͼ ϋਗεȜΠρϋΡ͈ΑΗϋτȜȆˬȆ;΁ȜτϋȪStanley P. Warrenȫ֓঍͉Ȅু໦͈ࠐࡑ ͬ૦ͤ༐̽̀ষ͈̠͢ͅ੆͓̞̀ͥȃȶඵාۼ͈ڠ୆শయȄ๞Ȯঐ൵֓঍ȯ͉࿷͈֚႕ͬੰ̞

̀জͅ੄ॲ͈છ႕ͬࡉ̵̥̹̈́̽ȃȤȤজ͉ٳު̱̀অ̥࠮ࠐ̾́͘Ȅ੄ॲ͈છ႕ͬࠐࡑ̱̹ ̭̦̥̹͂̈́̽ȷ16)_{ȃ̹͘ఈ͈֓঍͜1916ාͅȄ12ාஜͅ௾ު̱̹൚শ͈ങ߿എ̈́֓ڠࢷ́਋} ̫̹ॲشڠޗ͉֗Ȅȶޗش੥͈උٜȄ৽ͅ։ુȮ੄ॲȯͬ৾ͤե̠࣒͈݅ಶ࣒Ȅ̷̤̩ͣ։ુ ̈́պ౾ͅ౾̥̹ͦ૽ఘٜཎ࿅߿ͬঀဥ̱͈̀੩ॲȄ̷̱̀ٴ౲ޗ৒͈́ତ࠯͈੄ॲ͈۷ख़̥ͣ ଼̞̹̽̀ȷ͂બ࡞̱̞̀ͥ17)_{ȃ̭͈̠͢ͅȄ֓ڠࢷ́ڠ୆ͅ೹ރ̯̹ͦȶႉ઄ȷޗ͈֗ఱ໐} ໦͉ॲشڠဥ૽ఘٜཎ࿅߿̦ಎ૤̜́ͤȄఉ̩͈֓ڠ୆̷͉̦͂̽̀ͦͅ࿷͈֚੩ॲࠐࡑ̜́ ̹̽ȃ ȁ20ଲܮഢ۟ܢ̞̩̥͈́̾֓͘ͅڠࢷ̦Ȅ֓ڠ୆ͥ͢ͅু఺੄ॲͬଷഽا̱̹ȃ̱̥̱Ȅڠ ୆͉̹̞̞̀੄ॲͅၛ̻̠̹ٛ͛۬ͅආ৪̱̈́́ۛ৪͈ু఺ͅ௣ࣺ̹͈ͤͦ́͘Ḙ͈̏ڠਠࠐ ࡑ͉ܓࡏ̹̳̭̜̹ͬͣ͂̽͜͜18)_{ȃ႕̢͊Ȅ1917ාͅ΋υρΡఱڠ२ා୆͈ڠ୆̦ඵ૽Ȅ۬} ආ৪̱ࣣ̈́́໵છฺ̠ͬ੄ॲͅၛ̻̞ٛ̽̀ͥۼͅ๟̦ࠠਥ̹̽ȃ୤ͭཏ͉Ȅ̷͈͒੣̦ਉͅ ̧̩̾ے̧̞̹̾ಊ௳ͥ͢ͅঘॲ̜̹́̽ȃڠ୆ో͉੩̫ͬࡤ̴͊ͅ10শۼ͜ଈ೑ͅၛ̻̞ٛȄ ̷͈ۼଈ೑௯ૺसཻ͞ଜͬঔ̱̞̹̀ȃ̭͈৐෴͈ࡔ֦͉Ȅ੩̫ͬࡤ̥̹̞̠͊̈́̽͂ڠ୆ో ͈ۼ֑̹̽஖఼͂Ȅڠ୆̭̓́͘ͅහ̵͈̥ͥͬྶږͅ೰̱̞̥̹݅̀̈́̽ޗ֥͈ۯၑ͈ᔛཾ ̯͈ၰ༷̜̹̽ͅȃޗ֥̦ၛ̻ٛ̽̀͜൳̲ࠫض̦̭̹̥̱̞̦ܳ̽ͦ̈́͜Ȅ̷͈੄ြম͉ྶ ̥ͣͅȄڠ୆ͅచ̳ͥ۬ආ͈ະ਱໦̯̥ͣ୆̲ͥ࿚ఴͬ႕া̱̞̹̀19)_{ȃ̱̥̱Ȅু఺੄ॲޗ} ֗̽̀͢ͅઁ̩̈́͂͜ڠ୆͉ঢ߃ݻၗ́੄ॲͬ۷ख़̧̳̭̦ͥ͂́Ȅু໦ু૸́੄ॲ̵̯̭ͥ ̢̧̯̹͂́ȃ ȁ̷͈ఈͅڠ୆̦ႉ઄ॲشڠͬڠ̧̭̦̹͈͉͐͂́ພ̜̹̦֭́̽Ȅພ͈֭́ႉ઄ࠐࡑ͈خ ෝ଻̹͘͜๱ુͅࡠ̞̹ͣͦ̀ȃΏλȜυΛΠȆˣȆδȜΑΠȪCharlotte G. Borstȫ̦಺औ ̱̹;ͻΑ΋ϋΏϋਗ͈֓঍͉Ȅ௾ުஜࢃͅ໹޳7.3̥࠮ۼພً̮̱̹̦֭́Ȅ475૽ಎ271૽ Ȫ57.1ΩȜΓϋΠȫ͉ພ͈֭́ႉ઄ࠐࡑ̦஠̩̥̹̈́̽20)_{ȃηΏ΄ϋఱڠ͉́ࢨ׋̈́ڠ୆̺̫̦Ȅ} ఱڠພ֭́ଲდ̱̞ͬ̀ͥාۼ10૽̥ͣ12૽͈ॲشۛ৪͈֚૽ͬࡉ̧̭̦̹ͥ͂́ȃ1903ාͅ ηΏ΄ϋਗͺ΢ȜΨȜ́઀̯̈́ॲشພ̦֭஻୭̯̹̦ͦȄڠ୆͉͕͂ͭ̓ۛ৪ͬࡉ̭͉ͥ͂̈́ ̥̹̽ȃ̞̠͈͉͂Ȅພ৒͉ͅ30̱̥ૢర̦̩̈́Ȅ੫଻͉੄ॲࢃة਩ۼ͜ව̱̞̹̥֭̀ͣ́ ̜ͥ21)_{ȃ̭͈̠͢ͅȄ20ଲܮ੝൮͈́͘ॲشڠޗ͉֗Ȅఱ໐໦͉ၑაഎ́ႉ઄ࠐࡑ̦ະ௷̱̀} ̤ͤȄ֓঍ͅအș̈́੄ॲͅၛ̻̠̹͈ٛ͛੔๵̵̯͈͉̥̹ͬͥ́̈́̽͜ȃ

ˎḁ๊֚̏֓୺࿝̥֓

ȁ͉̲͛ͅ੆͓̹̠͢ͅȄ20ଲܮ੝൮͉ͅȄॲش୺࿝֓͂Ȅࢩํս̹ͩͥ֓ͅၷުྩ͈֚໐͂ ̱̀੄ॲͬ৾ͤե๊̠͈֚֓͂ۼͅȨ͉̱̹̏̽ͤ͂ޏٮ஌͉̥̹̈́̽ȃ๊֚֓͜ॲش୺࿝֓ ͜੄ॲͅၛ̻̹̦ٛ̽Ȅၰ༷͂֓͜঍̜́ͤȄచ൝̜̹́̽ȃ੄ॲ͞ॲشڠͅ۾̳݈ͥა͉Ȅ ৘ष๊͉̠̳̥֚֓ͬ̓ͥͅȄ̳̻̈́ͩȄ๞ͣͬ୺࿝ز̱͂̀༫܄̷̳͈̥ͥͦ͂͜ෳੰ̳ͥ

͈̥Ȅ̞̠݈͂ა̜̹́̽ȃ ȁ;ͻςͺθΒ֓঍͉Ȅ1912ා͈ॲشڠޗ֗ͅ۾̳ͥ༭͈࣬ಎ́Ȅ๊֚֓ͅచ̳ͥॲشڠޗ֗ ͈ຈါ଻ͬ৽ಫ̱̹ȃ̞̠͈͉͂Ȅ๞͉ͣ੩ॲ঍͂൳̲̩̞ͣȄ̷̷̤̩͉ͣͦͤ͢ఉ̩͈੫ ଻ͬȄॲ᫭෎́ঘཌ̵̯̞̹̥̜̀ͣ́ͥȃ๊͉֚֓ȶॲشڠͬȄఱ̧̈́ୣහฺ̠ͬਹါ̈́૖ ު͂ࡉ̳̠̈́͢ͅޗ̧̯͓̜֗ͦͥ́ͥȷ͂;ͻςͺθΒ͉੆͓̹22)_{ȃ൳အͅȄΙλȜσΒȆ} ˝ȆΌȜΡϋȪCharles A. Gordonȫ֓঍͜Ȅ໹޳എ̈́֓঍ͅܖயͬޗ̢̭ͥ͂̽̀͢ͅȄ๞ ͣͬ୺࿝໦࿤ͅ༫܄̳̭ͥ͂ͬབ̺ͭȃȶພ͉֭Ȅܰ௱ͅਲ̠̭͂ͅ൳փ̳̳͓͈ͥ̀૽ۼͅȄ ॲش֓ၷ͈࿝࡫ͬٳ̞̤̀ͤȷȄॲش୺࿝૖͈࿚ఴ͈ٜࠨॐ͉Ȅȶ̯ͣ̈́ͥ୺࿝͈֓߱Ⴏ͉́̈́ ̩ȤȤ໹޳എ̈́૽ۼͅచ̳ͥࠑ௽എ̈́ޗ֗ȷ̜ͥ͂ͅΌȜΡϋ͉৽ಫ̱̹23)_ȃ ȁచચഎͅȄΟςȜ֓঍͉Ȅ๊̥֚֓ͣݻၗͬ༗̽̀ॲش୺࿝૖ͬ࢜ષ̵̯̭ͥ͂ͬ৽ಫ̱ ̹ȃȶِș͉Ȅॲشڠ͈ၑேͬȄႉশഎ̈́֓ၷ࣐ևਲম৪๊̜͈֚́ͥ֓କ੔ͅئ̬͈͉ͥ́ ̩̈́Ȅॲشڠ๊̤̞֚̀֓ͬͅ୺࿝͈֓କ੔ͅષ̬̫̞̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́ȷ͂ΟςȜ͉੆͓̹24)_ȃ έͻρΟσέͻͺ͈΀ΡχȜΡȆˬȆΟͼόͻΑȪEdward P. Davisȫ֓঍͉Ȅॲش֓ͬࣞഽ ̈́୺࿝૖৪̳̹͂ͥ͛ȄΐͿέ͹Εϋ֓شఱڠ͈ڠ୆ͬ౳଻੩ॲ঍Ȫman-midwifeȫ͂ॲش ֓Ȫobstetricianȫͅ໦̫̹ȃٸش਀੅࣐̞̹̞̞̠ͬ͂࿤૤ͬ༴̷̧ͦͬڠ͐ܥ̦̜ٛͥڠ ୆͉Ȅॲش̱֓͂̀৽ါ̈́ٸش਀੅࣐̠ͬȃٸشոٸ͈໦࿤ͅ۾૤ͬ঵̾ڠ୆͉Ȅඳॲͬু໦ ́ੜၑ̵̴Ȅࣾඳͅೄ࿂̱̹শ͉ۛͅ৪ͬພ֭ͅ௣ࣺ͚̭̦ͤ͂ါݥ̯ͦͥȃ̭͈̠̱̀͢ͅȄ ๤ڛഎઁତ͈ခෝ̈́ॲش֓ͬॲ੄̳̭ͥ͂ͬȄΟͼόͻΑ͉བ̺ͭȃȶॲشڠ͉Ȅఈ͈ٸشڠ ໦࿤൳အͅȄࣾඳ഼́ႁͬါ̱Ȅ๤ڛഎઁତ͈֓ڠ௾ު୆̷̺̫̦̠̩࣐̠ͦͬ͘ෝႁȄෆఛ ႁȄ঵ݛႁͬ঵̞̽̀ͥȃ̭͈ॽম࣐̠͈ͬͅତఉ̩͈໼͙͈৪ͤ͢͜ઁତ͈࿹̹ͦ৪̦̞ͥ ༷̦Ȅ૽႒͈၌ף͉ͅၻ̞͂জ͉૞̲̞̀ͥȷ͂๞͉੆͓̹25)_{ȃ̷̭́ոئ͉́Ȅ20ଲܮ੝൮} ͅॲش͈֓ۼ́Ȅॲشڠޗ̪͈̠݈֗ͬ͛̽̀̓̈́͢ა̦࣐̞̹͈̥ͩͦ̀ͬȄޗ֗শۼȄႉ ઄ޗ֗Ȅ਀੅ٚව͈२തͅઙതͬ൚̀̀ࡉ̞̩̀ȃ Ȫˍȫޗ֗শۼ ȁॲشڠ͉֓ڠٮ̤̞̀ͅఈ͈୺࿝໦࿤͂๤ڛ̱̀ະ၌̈́ၛાͅ౾̥̞̹͈ͦ̀́Ȅॲش͉֓Ȅ ॲشڠ̦֓ڠ͈ਹါ̈́୺࿝໦࿤̜́ͥ͂৽ಫ̱̹ȃ႕̢͊ȄΣνȜπȜ·͈ΐοȜΐȆΈτͼȆ ;΁ȜΡȪGeorge Gray Wardȫ֓঍͉Ȅ1926ා͈˝˩˝ల77ٝාষఱ͈ٛॲິ૽شȆໜ໐ٸ شڠ໐̤̞ٛ̀ͅȄ๊֚֓͂̽̀ͅॲشڠ͉୺࿝໦࿤̜́ͤȄ̷ͦ࡬ͅ২͈ٛ໛ছͅະخࠧ́ ̜ͥ͂ঐഊ̱̹ȃȶ֓ڠ͈ܖུഎ໦࿤͈͌͂̾ͬయນ̳̭͈ͥ৽ါ̈́֓ڠ̤̫ٛͥͅड͜ਹါ ̈́໦࿤͈̱͌͂̾͂̀Ȅॲشڠ๊͉͈֚֓୺࿝̜́ͤȄ̷̤̩ͣ઀঱شڠͬੰ̞̀Ȅ̷͕ͦ̓ ๊֚֓͂̽̀ͅਹါ́২͈ٛ໛ছͅະخ̜ࠧ́ͥඅ༆̈́୺࿝໦࿤͉ఈ̞̭̈́͂ͬͅ෇ে̳ͥ ̈́ͣ͊Ȅِș̥̥̩̽̀ͥͅୣහͬୃ൚ͅບث̱̫̞̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́ȷ26)_{ȃΥήρΑ΃ਗ΂ζΧ} ͈ΩȜζȜȆέͻϋΡτͼȪPalmer Findleyȫ֓঍͜Ȅ1928ා͈ͺις΃ॲິ૽شȆໜ໐ٸ

ش֓঍ٛȪAmerican Association of Obstetricians, Gynecologists and Abdominal Surgeonsȫ ͈ٛಿ׵୰̤̞̀ͅȄȶఱڠޗ֥͈ྴͅ౹̲̞̈́শ୹ͬං̹࣐൲̦ါݥ̯ͦͥ޽ݢমఠ̞̠͂ ۷ത̥ͣȄॲشڠ͉ఈ͈̞̥̈́ͥ֓ၷ୺࿝໦࿤ͤ͢͜࿹୶ࡀ̦̜ͥ͂࡞̢̥̱̞ͥͦ̈́͜ȷ͂Ȅ ॲشڠ̦ఈ͈֓ၷ୺࿝໦࿤ͤ͢͜ਹါ̜̭́ͥ͂ͬ৽ಫ̱̹27)_ȃ ȁ̭͈̠̈́͢ॲشڠ͈ਹါ଻̴̥̥ͩͣ͜ͅȄ֓ڠࢷ͈၎ਘً೾̤̞̀ͅॲشڠͅڬͤ൚̀ͣ ͦͥশۼ͉̜ͤ͘͜ͅະ௷̱̤̀ͤȄॲشڠͬޗ̳̹͉֗ͥ͛̽͂͜ͅఉ̩͈শۼ̦ຈါ̜́ ͥ͂ॲش͉֓৽ಫ̱̹ȃ1925ා͈༦଻໛ছտ֥ٛȪCommittee on Maternal Welfareȫ͈༭࣬ ੥ͦ͊͢ͅȄ๊͈֚֓ڰ൲͉Ȅඤشڠ50ΩȜΓϋΠȄॲشڠ35ΩȜΓϋΠȄ̷̱̀۰ౙ̈́ٸش ڠȆࣸ୬Ȇ୆ྵ༗ࡏ̈́̓15ΩȜΓϋΠ̞̠͂ڬࣣ̜͈́ͥͅచ̱̀Ȃ֓ڠࢷ͈၎ਘه೾͉́Ȅ ॲشڠ͂Ȅ୺࿝ٸشڠͬੰ๊̩֚ٸشڠ͈৘ष͈ޗ֗শۼ͈๤ၚ͉Ȅːచ18̜̹́̽ȃȶਲ̽ ̀ྶ̥ͣͅȄ๊̦֚֓ຈါ̳͈͂ͥͬ͜਱໦ͅ೹ރ̱̠̳͂ͥ̈́ͣ͊͢Ȅ၎ਘه೾ͬक़૧̳ͥ आݶ̦̜ͥȷ͂έͻϋΡτͼ͉৽ಫ̱̹ȃȶਲ̽̀জ͉Ȅͺις΃ॲິ૽شȆໜ໐ٸش֓঍̦ٛȄ ֓ڠࢷ͈၎ਘه೾ͬܰ೰̳ͥࡀࡠͬဓ̢̞ͣͦ̀ͥ૽ͅȄॲشڠޗ֗̽͂͜ͅୃ൚̈́ບثͬဓ ̵̢̯Ȅ̷̷̱͈̀ࠫض֓ڠࢷ͈௾ު୆๊֚ͅഎ̈́֓ၷ࣐և͈ຈါͅྫၑ̩̈́؊̲ͥ੔๵̯ͬ ̵̭͉ͥ͂Ȅ৘षୃ൚̈́ါݥ̜́ͥ͂এ̠ȷ28)_ȃ ȁ̷̱̀1927ා͈ͺις΃ॲິ૽شȆໜ໐ٸش֓঍͈ࣣ͉ٛٛ́Ȅ֓ڠࢷ͈၎ਘه೾̤̞̀ͅ ๊֚ٸشڠ͂ॲشڠͅచ̱̀൳൝͈ບث̳̠̞̠ͬͥ͂͢ͅ૭̱ၛ̀ͬȄ˟˩ˡ͂ͺις΃֓ شఱڠފٛȪAmerican Association of Medical Collegesȫͅ೹੄̳̭̦ͥ͂ࠨ݈̯̹ͦ29)_ȃ Ȫˎȫႉ઄ޗ֗ ȁ20ଲܮ੝൮͈́͘ॲشڠޗ͉͕֗͂ͭ̓ၑაഎ͈̜̈́́ͤ͜Ȅྶ̥ͣͅႉ઄ࠐࡑ̦ະ௷̱̀ ̞̹ȃ20ଲܮ੝൮͉ͅȄఉ̩͈ॲش̦֓ႉ઄ޗ͈֗ຈါ଻ͬঐഊ̳̠̞̹ͥ̈́̽̀͢ͅȃ႕̢ ͊ηΏ΄ϋਗͺ΢ȜΨȜ͈σȜαϋȆάȜΗȜΕϋȪReuben Petersonȫ֓঍͉Ȅ1920ා͈˝ ˩˝͈ॲິ૽شȆໜ໐ٸشڠ໐̤̞ٛ̀ͅȄȶ֓ڠࢷ͉Ȅًݲ͈ॲشڠޗ̤̞͉֗̀ͅႉ઄̦ ྫণ̧̯̹̭ͦ̀͂ͬ෇͛Ȅ̷͈̠̈́͢ેޙ̦٨஝̯̠༷ͦͥ̈́͢ॐ࣒̲ͬͥশ̜́ͥȷ͂ႉ ઄ޗ͈֗ຈါ଻ͬஶ̢̹30)_ȃ ȁ̱̥̱̦̈́ͣ৘ष͉ͅȄఱఉତ͈֓ڠࢷ̤̞̀ͅॲشڠޗ͈֗ႉ઄୭๵̦ະ௷̱̞̹̀ȃή σΛ·ςϋ͈ΐοϋȆ΂ΒδȜϋȆερΛ·ȪJohn Osborn Polakȫ֓঍͉Ȅ1921ා͈˝˩˝ ల72ٝාষఱ͈ٛॲິ૽شȆໜ໐ٸشڠ໐̤̞ٛ̀ͅȄȶޗ਎༹͉࿹̤ͦ̀ͤȄْ̥֚̈́ͤا ̯̞̭ͦ̀ͥ͂ͬȄ಺औ͉া̱̞̀ͥȃ̱̥̱Ȅఱఉତ͈ڠࢷ́ႉ઄۷ख़͈̹͈͛୭๵̦ະ਱ ໦̜́ͤȄ֓ၷ୺࿝ز͜ள૽͜Ȅ੄ॲ͉ୃુً̈́೾̜́ͥ͂ࣉ̢௽̫̞̞̠̀ͥ͂ম৘͈̹ ͛Ȅڠ୆͉̱̱͊͊Ȅদࡑࣣͅڒ̱̹͈̞̥́̈́ͥ੫଻͈੄ॲ͜ͅၛ̻̠ٛෝႁ̦̜ͥ͂এ̽ ̀২ٛͅ੄̱̠̀͘ȷ͂ঐഊ̱̹31)_{ȃ΍ϋέρϋΏΑ΋͈έρϋ·Ȇ˳ȆςϋΙȪFrank W.} Lynchȫ֓঍͜Ȅ1924ා͈˝˩˝ల75ٝාষఱ͈ٛॲິ૽شȆໜ໐ٸشڠ໐̤̞ٛ̀ͅȄȶ֓

ၷ୺࿝ز͈෎૤̈́׋൲͂ள૽͈ۙખ̴̥̥ͩͣ͜ͅȄॲش͈ેޙ͉̜ͤ͘٨஝̯̞̞ͦ̀̈́ȷ ͂੆͓̹ȃ̷̱̀Ȅȶڠࢷ̦Ȅ௾ުஜͅઁ̩̈́͂͜50࠯͈છ႕ͬڠ୆ͅ೹ރ̳͈ͥͅ਱໦̈́૷ ၷਫ਼ͬ࠺୭̱̞̈́ࡠͤȄ๊̠̱֚̓̀എેޙ̦٨஝̯̜̠̥ͦͥ́ͧȃॲشڠ͉ȤȤཅີ̈́ႉ ઄ࠐࡑ́༞̞ͩ̈́ࡠͤȄޗش੥Ȅ࣒݅Ȅ̜̞͉ͥ૽ఘٜཎ࿅߿̺̫́ڠ̧̭͉̞͐͂́̈́ȃႉ ઄ॲشڠ๊͉֚എ͉̞̦́̈́Ȅ̳͓͈̀֓঍ͅຈਘا̧̯͓̜ͦͥ́ͥȷ͂৽ಫ̱̹32)_ȃ ȁέͻϋΡτͼ֓঍͉Ȅȶͺις΃̤̫ͥͅၑაޗ͉֗Ȅఈ͈࣭ș̽̀͢ͅ೰̹͛ͣͦܖ੔͢ ̥ͤ̈́ͤ͜ષ̜́ͥ͂࡞̞̥̱̞̦ͩͦ̀ͥͦ̈́͜Ȅႉ઄۷ख़͈୭๵͉ఉ̩͈ঔ୭́ૂ̫̞̈́ ೾ະ௷̱̞̀ͥȷ͂ঐഊ̱Ȅ̷͈̭̦͂Ȅఈ࣭͂๤ڛ̱̀ͺις΃͈ॲشহၷ̦౹̴̧͓ે ఠ̜ͥͅၑဇ̜́ͥ͂৽ಫ̱̹33)_{ȃ΋υϋΫͺఱڠ͈ॲິ૽شڠޗ਎˞ȆˬȆχΠΕϋȪB. P.}

Watsonȫ͜Ȅ1930ාͅΣνȜπȜ·֓ڠͺ΃ΟηȜȪNew York Academy of Medicineȫ́Ȅȶ̳ ͓͈̀֓঍̦Ȅ੄୆ஜ૷ၷਫ਼Ȅພ൓Ȅॲ৒Ȅഐ୨ͅ୭๵̯ͦ׋א̯̞ͦ̀ͥॲشພ͈֭౜൚౷ ߊ́Ȅڠ୆̱̹͂̀͂̽͘͘শۼȽडࢃ͈ා͈ઁ̩̈́͂͜ˏ̥࠮ۼȽً̮̳ͬܥٛͬ঵̾́͘Ȅ ࣭஠ఘ͈ॲش֓ၷ͉৘ৗഎͅ٨஝̯̞̜̠ͦ̈́́ͧȷ͂੆͓̞̹̀34)_ȃ ȁ̭̠̱̀Ȅႉ઄ޗ͈֗ຈါ଻͂Ȅ̷͈̹͈͛ႉ઄୭๵͈ະ௷ͬ෇ে̳̠̹ͥ̈́̽͢ͅॲش֓ ͉Ȅႉ઄ޗऺ̱͂̀̽͂͜ఉ̩͈੄ॲఞܥۛ৪̦ຈါ̜́ͥ͂ږ૞̳̠̹ͥ̈́̽͢ͅȃ̷͈̹ ͛ͅȄ੩ॲ঍ͬෳੰ̱̀੄ॲۛ৪ͬພ֭ͅਓယ̱Ȅႉ઄ޗ֗ͅຈါ̈́ޗऺͬඊ୸̱̠̱̹͂͢ ͈̜́ͥ35)_ȃ Ȫˏȫ਀੅ٚව ȁॲشڠ͂ິ૽شڠ͉Ȅ1920ා̥ͣ39ා̥̫̀ͅழ૕ا̱̹͂ȄΩιρȆ˯Ȇ΍ιͼȪPamela S. Summeyȫ͂ζȜΏλȆΧȜΑΠȪMarsha Hurstȫ͉੆͓̞̀ͥȃ̳̻̈́ͩȄॲشڠ͂ິ ૽شڠ͉Ȅ֓ၷ୺࿝໦࿤̱͂̀হၷඤယͬྶږͅ೰̱݅̀ޏٮͬ୭೰̱̹ȃ΍ιͼ͂ΧȜΑΠ ͉Ḙ͈̏୺࿝ழ૕ا͈ड͜ਹါ̈́ࠫض͉Ȅ̷͈শܢ͈̞ͩͥ͠ݢૺ৽݅৪̽̀͢ͅ৽ಫ̯̹ͦ ୟޭഎٚව৽͈݅੄࡛̜̹́̽͂৽ಫ̱̞̀ͥȃ̭͈ୟޭഎٚව৽͉݅ȄॲشȆິ૽ش͈֓঑ ෻എ̈́ͼΟ΂υΆȜ̱͂̀঵௽̳̭̹ͥ͂̈́̽ͅȃ੄ॲ͈͒ࢩํս̹ͩͥٚͅවͬ঑঵̳̭ͥ ͈ୟޭഎٚව৽͈݅੄࡛͉Ȅ̞̩̥͈̾ၑဇ́Ȅ༗৿എະٚව৽݅৾̽̀ͅయ̹ͩ̽ȃల͈֚ ၑဇ͉Ȅ̷͈୺࿝໦࿤̦Ȅॲشڠ͂Ȅິ૽شڠ͈਀੅໦࿤͈ࣣ̜̹̭̜͂ࠫ́̽͂́ͥȃలඵ ͈ၑဇ͉Ȅ૧̱̞୺࿝૖͉Ȅু๊֚ͣͬ֓͂ߊ༆̳ͥຈါ̦̜̹̭̜̽͂́ͥȃ΍ιͼ͂ΧȜ ΑΠ̦୰ྶ̱̞̠̀ͥ͢ͅȄॲش͉֓ȶ̞̥̈́ͥ֓঍͜੄ॲͅႁͬ఩̧̳̭͉̦͂́ͥȄࠐࡑ ཅ̥̈́୺࿝֓Ƚॲິ૽ش֓Ƚ͈͙̦Ȅհ஠ͅਉ๶̩ٚ͢ව̧̳̭̦ͥ͂́ͥȷ̲̞̹͂ۜ̀ȃ ֚໐͈༗৿എະٚව৽͈݅ॲش͉֓Ȅࠐफ଻͂հ஠଻ͬआݶ̭͈ͅୟޭഎٚව৽݅ͅಯ୽̱̹ ̦Ȅȶ1920ාయͅอో̱̹ୟޭഎٚව৽͉݅Ȅ1940ාయ̥ͣ50ාయͅȄ੫଻͈୆૓ࠏൡ͈̳͓ ͈̀૸ఘഎȆ૤ၑഎ௰࿂͈ଲდ̳ͬͥॲິ૽ش֓Ȅ̞̠͂ڐಫ৽݅എࡉٜ͈आݶ̹͂̈́̽ȷ͂Ȅ ΍ιͼ͂ΧȜΑΠ͉৽ಫ̱̞̀ͥ36)_ȃ

ȁॲش͉֓ȄළૡȆ੄ॲ̦͉͜͞ুட̈́୆ၑڠഎً೾͉̩́̈́Ȅ֓ڠ̦ٚව̧̳͓ພၑڠഎ࡛ ય̜́ͥ͂৽ಫ̱̀Ȅ֓ڠٮඤ໐̤̫ͥͅॲش͈֓౷պͬ࢜ષ̵̯̠̱̹͂͢ȃ႕̢͊;ͻς ͺθΒ֓঍͉Ȅȶළૡݞ͍੄ॲ͉೒႕͉୆ၑڠഎً೾̜̦́ͥȄુ̷̠̜͉́ͥ͂ͅࡠ̞ͣ̈́ ̺̫̩́̈́Ȅ་಺͞։ુ̧̹̱̳̞͈ͬ́͞Ȅॲິ͉Ȅ༶౾̱̹̱̤̩̀͂͘͘ͅ༦૶͈୆ྵ ͂ঊރ͈୆ྵͬ૬࣫̈́ܓࡏ̯̳̥̱̞ͣͦ̈́͜ͅఉ̩͈ࣣ໵છͬȄ்ܢͅอࡉ̱হၷ̳̭ͥ͂ ̧̦́ͥȄ௛ྶ̈́֓঍͈ۭࢌͬ਋̧̫͓̜ͥ́ͥȷ̞̠̭͂͂ͬȄ๊֚ఱਤͅޗ̢̫̈́ͦ͊̈́ ̞ͣ̈́͂৽ಫ̱̹37)_ȃ ȁΟςȜ֓঍͜Ȅȶ৘ष͉ͅॲشڠ͉๱ુͅພၑڠഎث౵̦̜ͤȄٸشڠ͂൳൝͈৽ါشڠ́ ̜͈ͥͅȄ֓ၷ୺࿝ز͉൳အ͈Ȯ੄ॲ͉୆ၑڠഎ࣐և̜̞̠́ͥ͂ȯ༊ࡉͬ਋̫ව̞ͦ̀ͥȃ ږ̥ͅ୤ͭཏͬॲ͚̭͉͂ুடً̈́೾̜́ͤȄুட͈փ଎͉ୃુ̈́ܥෝ̜̠̦́ͧȄ̷̦ͦခ ٺ͈̜̞̠̭̈́́ͥ͂͂ͬ͜๛೰̧̳̭̦ͥ͂́ͥ૽ۼ͉̞̞̈́ȃِș͉ٯȄুட̈́੄ॲ̯́ ̢̱̱͊͊ఉ̩͈༦૶͂୤ͭཏ͈ၰ༷ͅఅੱͬဓ̢̭ͥ͂ͬ౶̞̽̀ͥȃ̱͜͜੄ॲ̦ခٺ́ ̷̜͉ͥ̈́ͣ͊ͦພࡔ଻̜́ͤȄ̱͜͜ພࡔ଻̷̜͉́ͥ̈́ͣ͊ͦພၑഎ̜́ͥȷ͂৽ಫ̱ ̹38)_{ȃ̷̱̀ȶॲشڠ́ȄΙέΑ෎ࠫ͞ړ͞ΐέΞςͺ͈হၷ͞ထཡ̤̞̜̹̠̀̽̈́͢ͅ٨} ஝̦̞̈́ȷआུഎ̈́ၑဇ͉Ȅȶ๊֚ఱਤ̦Ȅ੄ॲ͉ພၑڠഎܥෝ̜̞̠́ͥ͂ࣉ̢ͬ঵̞̽̀ ̞̥̜̈́ͣ́ͥȃȤȤࣽ඾͉́ȤȤ੄ॲ͉͉͜͞ୃુ̈́ܥෝ͉̞́̈́ȷ͂౯࡞̱̹39)_ȃΟςȜ ͦ͊͢ͅȄȶ੄ॲಎ͈ܓࡏͬ྾͈͉͕͈ͦͥͭઁତ͈੫଻ȷ̺̫̜͈́ͥ́Ȅॲش͉֓Ȅ੄ॲ ಎ๞੫ో͈੩̫̹͂̈́ͥ͛̽͂͜ͅة̥̱̫̥̹ͬ̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́̽40)_ȃ ȁ̭͈̠̈́͢ୟޭഎٚව৽͈݅ॲش͉֓Ȅ੫଻Ȅઁ̩̈́͂͜ॲش͈֓΍ȜΫᾼచ̱̀঑໡̠ ဒဉ̦̜ͥ੫଻͉Ȅଚ৻ً̱̀ഽͅ໲ྶا̱̤̀ͤȄਲ̽̀੄ॲ͉ͅഐ̱̞̞̀̈́͂ࡉ̱̈́̀ ̞̹ȃΟςȜ͉൚শ͈੫଻ͬȶ࡛య໲ྶ͈૰ࠐًຮ́ྫႁ̈́ॲ໤ȷ͂ࡤ͍Ȅ࡛య੫଻͉͉͜͞ ׳੩̱̈́ͅ੄ॲͬۖଛ̧̳̭̦̞̱ͥ͂́̈́͂Ḙ̷̏́ॲش̦֓ض̹̯̫̞̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́ਹါ ̈́࿨ڬͬޑ಺̱̹41)_{ȃ੄ॲཻ̤̫ͥͅଜ͈ঀဥͬသࢌ̱̀ȄηΒȜςਗ΃ϋΎΑΏΞͻ͈ΐο}

ȜΐȆ·ρȜ·ȆκΛΏλȜȪGeorge Clark Mosherȫ֓঍͉Ȅ1921ා͈ͺις΃ॲິ૽شȆ ໜ໐ٸش֓঍ٛల34ٝාষఱ̤̞ٛ̀ͅȄষ͈̠͢ͅ੆͓̹ȃȶ20ଲܮ͈੫଻͉Ȅޗ۪֗͂ޏ ̵͈̞́ޭ౤಼̈́૰ࠐًຮછ̈́ͤͅȄגޣͬ਋̫̳̞͞૰ࠐࠏൡͬ঵̻Ȅߎ೑ͬޑ̩̲ۜͥȃ ਲ̽̀Ȅ๞੫͈૸ఘഎȆୈ૰എႁ͉ယօͅ৐͈̜ͩͦͥ́ͥȷ42)_{ȃ̭͈̠̈́͢৽ಫ͉Ȅॲش֓} ͈΍ȜΫᾼచ̱̀঑໡̠ဒဉ̦̜ͥ੫଻͈ۼ́ঌાͬैͤ੄̱Ȅ੩ॲ঍๊֚֓͞ͅచ̳ͥॲ ش୺࿝͈֓࿹պͬږၛ̳͈ͥͅ࿨ၛ̹̽ȃ ȁఈ༷́Ȅ༗৿എະٚව৽݅৪͉Ȅॲشڠ̤̫ͥͅ๟६̈́ࠫض͈ࡔ֦ͬ਀੅ٚවͅܦ̱̀Ȅୟ ޭഎٚව৽݅ͅచ̳ͥ࠼ැͬນྶ̱̹ȃˮȆˢȆΑ΅ȜσȪR. F. Skeelȫ֓঍ͦ͊͢ͅȄȶୃ ુ੄ॲ̢̤̞̯̀ͅȄ̱͜͜ॲش̦֓Ȅ୤ͭཏ̦୆ͦͥ͘ஜͅȮ੄ॲ࡛ાͅȯൢ಍̳̭̦ͥ͂ ̧́ͦ͊Ȅ̳͓͈̀ॲشۛ৪͉਀੅છ႕ͅ୨ͤఢ̢̧͓̜ͣͦͥ́ͥ͂৽ಫ̳ͥȄ૧̱̞ڠ෩

̦࡛̞ͦ̀ͥȷ43)_{ȃςϋΙ֓঍͉Ȅȶ࡛हॲشڠ͉Ȅ20ාஜͅິ૽شڠ̤̞̭̹̠̀ܳ̽͢ͅͅȄ} ୆ၑڠ̥ͣٸشڠ͒͂ࡉٜͬ་ا̵̯̠̳͂ͥ͢ޑႁ̈́ݢૺ৽݅എڠ෩̽̀͢ͅई၄̵̯ͣͦ ̞̀ͥȷ͂ঐഊ̱Ȅȶ࡛हॲشڠ̦ຈါ̱̞͈͉͂̀ͥȄ๊֚ٸش֓ͤ͢͜Ȅͤ͢༗৿എ̈́ಏ ۼ̜́ͥȷ͂৽ಫ̱̹44)_{ȃ;΁ȜΡ֓঍͜Ȅȶ๊̞֚֓ͩͥ͞͠୺࿝̦֓Ȅհ஠̩̞̈́ٝͤ̓} ༹༷̥ͣၗͦ̀Ȅ̱̱͊͊༦૶͂ঊރ͈ၰ༷͂̽̀ͅ๟६̈́ࠫض̧̭̳ͬ֨ܳܓࡏ̈́਀̽৾ͤ ்༹̞༷ͅۿͥȷ̭͂ͬঐഊ̱Ȅȶুடͬୃુ̈́୆ၑڠഎً೾̥ͣ֝౎̵̯̠̳͂ͥ͢৪͉Ȅ ൚࿂͈࿒എͬో଼̳̥̱̞̦ͥͦ̈́͜Ȅ༹ٸ̈́యث̦̻̜̞̠̭̈́ͤ́ͥ͂͂ͬͅژ̢̤̥̀ ̫̞̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́ȃఱఉତ͈છ႕̤̞͉̀ͅȄܥຮ̜̭́ͥ͂ͤ͢͜ෆఛޑ̞༷̦Ȅၻ̞ॲش ̜֓́ͥȷ͂৽ಫ̱̹45)_ȃ ȁਲ̽̀Ȅ༗৿എະٚව৽݅৪͉Ȅޗ̤̞͉֗̀ͅȄະຈါ̈́ٚවͬ๰̫̠ͥ͢ͅڠ୆ͅၑٜ ̵̯̭̦ͥ͂ਹါ̜̲̞̹́ͥ͂ۜ̀ȃχΠΕϋ֓঍͉1926ා͈έͻρΟσέͻͺॲش֓ڠٛ ȪObstetrical Society of Philadelphiaȫ̤̞̀ͅȄȶ߃ාȄॲشڠ͉ٸشഎ୺࿝૖̜́ͤȄॲ ش͉֓ة̴ͤ͘͢͜ٸش̫̞̩֓́̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́͂͢໳̩ȃ̭͈ࣉ̢̦ॲشܿ੅͈٨஝഼͈ႁ ါ֦̈́ͥͅࡠͤȄ̷୍͉ͦͅၻ̞̭̜̦͂́ͥȄ૧ૺ͈֓঍̦Ȅ̳͓͈̀ۛ৪͉ٸشੜ౾ͬ਋ ̫̫̞̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́͂ࣉ̢̠ͥ̈́ͦ͊͢ͅȄ̷୍͉ͦͅ՛̞̭̜͂́ͥȃਲ̽̀Ȅॲشڠ͈ٸ شഎ଻ৗͬޑ಺̳ͥ͂ވͅȄޗ֥͈௰͉Ȅఱఉତ͈છ႕͉ܖུഎͅୃુ̜́ͤະຈါ̈́ٚව͉ ܓࡏ̜̞̠̭́ͥ͂͂ͬȄڠ୆ͅྐྵ̵ܱ̯̹ͥ͛ͅ෼഼͈ႁ̱̫̞ͬ̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́ȷ͂৽ಫ̱ ̞̀ͥ46)_{ȃȶࣽ඾͉́Ȅພ֭ঔ୭̦௩ح̱Ȅ߱Ⴏͬ਋̫̹ۭࢌ঍̦ັ̧ഞ̞Ȅ਀੅ͅȸ๵̢ͥȹ} ̭̦͂ယօ̹̹̈́̽͛ͅͅȄٚව͈઩൲ͅߐ̳̩̹͈ͣͦ̈́̽́͞Ȅȸ̤୯ٚ̈́੩ॲȹ࣐ͬͩ ̞̠̈́͢ͅޗ̢̭̦ͥ͂Ȅոஜͤ͢͜ຈါ̜́ͥȃȤȤȮۛ৪̦ȯߎ̱̞ͭ́ͥশ͈̳͓͈̀ ٚව͈ಭ࢓̞̾̀ͅȄޗ֥̦ڠ୆͂਱໦݈ͅა̱̞̈́ࡠͤȄڠ୆͉ۼ֑̹֣̽યͬ༴̩߹࢜ͅ ̜ͥ͂এ̠ȃ๞͉ͣȄ੃Ⴏ̱̹ॲش̦֓ࣾඳ̈́ᱛঊ੄ॲȄథ঱ٝഢ੅Ȅݙঊ͈੄ॲ̵଼̯ͬࢗ ͈ͥͬࡉ̀Ḙ଼͈͉̏ࢗȄ֚໐͉ȸຈါ຦֚৆ȹ͞༞੩ͅ۾̱̀ॽম̳͈ͬͥͅၑேഎ̈́ેޙ ̜̹̜́ͥ͛́ͤȄ֚໐͉֓঍͈ࡢ૽എ̈́ܿ੅ႁ͈̹̜͛́ͤȄ̱͜͜੿ြ͈ۛ৪͈ু఺́൳ ̲ੜ౾ͬদ̷͙̹̱̹͈͂ͣၰ༷̦ະ௷̱̞̜̠̭̀ͥ́ͧ͂ͬȄຈ̴̱͜ၑٜ̳͉ͥ͂ࡠͣ ̞̈́ȷȃਲ̽̀֓ڠ୆͉ͅȄॲش਀੅࣐̠̹͉ͬ͛ͅȄڠ໐ه೾̷̤̞̤̩̀ͣͅ਋̫̭ͥ͂ ̧̦́ͥոષ͈߱Ⴏ̦ຈါ̜́ͥ͂ၑ̵ٜ̯̫̥̹̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́̽47)_ȃ ȁ̷ͦͅచ̱̀ୟޭഎٚව৽݅৪͉Ȅ༦ఘঘཌၚ̦̞ࣞࡔ֦ͬȄȶ̧̠̳͓̥̓ͥ౶̞ͣ̈́૽ ۼͥ͢ͅ੄ॲಎ͈ٚවȷ͂੄୆ஜူࢌ͈ະ௷ͅܦ̱̹48)_{ȃ๞ͣͦ͊͢ͅȄڠ໐௾ު୆̜͈ͥͅ} ͉૷౯ෝႁ͈͙̜́ͤȄॲش਀੅࣐̠ͬෝႁ͉̥̹̈́̽ȃερΛ·֓঍̦1921ාͅ੆͓̞̀ͥ ̠͢ͅȄ֓ڠࢷͬ௾ު̱̹̥͈͊ͤ֓ڠ୆͉Ȅȶඅ༆̈́߱Ⴏͬ਋̫͉ͥ́͘Ȅໜ໐ͬ୨ٳ̳ͥ ෝႁً̨̦̜̞ͥ̈́ͅȷ͈̜́ͤȄȶ๞͉ౙ̈́ͥ౳଻੩ॲ঍̜́ͤȄ̷ͦոષ͉̞́̈́ȷ49)_ȃͼ ϋΟͻͺ΢εςΑ͈˝Ȇ˩ȆιϋΟϋγȜσȪA. M. Mendenhallȫ֓঍͉Ȅ1928ා͈ͺις

΃ॲິ૽شȆໜ໐ٸش֓঍ٛల41ٝාষఱ̤̞ٛ̀ͅȄষ͈̠͢ͅ৽ಫ̱̹ȃȶ໹޳എ̈́֓঍ ͉Ȅ੄ॲࢃ͈૬࣫̈́੄ࠬȄஜ౾థ๕Ȯథ๕̦ඤঊݠ࢛͈໐ͅպ౾̳͈ͥ́͜੄͈ࠬࡔ֦̳ͬ̈́ȯȄ ᦡఝ౎ȄญၗȄ̜̞͉ͥޛࣸ๕ͬ৾ͤե̠ෝႁ̦̞̈́ȃ๞͉Ȅ̱̱̥͊͊̈́ͤୃږ̈́ॲش͈૷ ౯̧࣐̠̭̦̥̱̞̱ͬ͂́ͥͦ̈́͜Ȅ̷̤̩ͣহၷ͈ঐૻͬ੥̧̩̭͉̦͂́ͥȄ̱̱͊͊ ഐ୨̈́ॲش਀੅࣐̠ͬෝႁ̦̞̈́ȃ࡛हȄٸشڠ͂ິ૽شڠ͈ޗ͉֗৽ͅڠ୆͈૷౯ෝႁͬ૝ ̱̞̦͊̀ͥȄॲشੜ౾ͬޗ഼̢ͥႁ͉͕̯̞̞͂ͭ̓̈́ͦ̀̈́ȃ̞̠͈͉͂Ȅ૧̱̞௾ު ୆̦২ٛͅ੄̀Ȅඅ༆̈́߱Ⴏͬ਋̫ͥஜͅఱ਀੅࣐̠͉ͬ͂ࣉ̢̞̞̥̜ͣͦ̀̈́ͣ́ͥȷ50)_ȃ ਲ̽̀Ȅ֓ڠޗ̤̞͉֗̀ͅȄ๊̦֚֓։ુ੄ॲ͈षͅু໦́ੜ౾̳̭͉ͥ͂ܿ੅എࣾͅඳ́ ̜ͤȄڠ໐ոષ͈߱Ⴏͬ਋̫̹୺࿝͈֓੩࡞͂ੜ౾̦ຈါ̜̭́ͥ͂ͬȄڠ୆ͅၑ̵ٜ̯̫̈́ ̥̹ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́̽ȃ ȁ̯ͣͅιϋΟϋγȜσ͉Ȅॲشڠ̤̞̀ͤ͢ͅఉ̩͈୺࿝֓ͬူ଼̳ͥຈါ଻ͬঐഊ̱̹̦Ȅ 1920ාయ̷͉͈ͅેޙ͉͕͂ͭ̓٨஝̯̥̹ͦ̈́̽͂৽ಫ̱̹ȃȶ୶͈ა໲́ಠ৪͉Ȅॲشڠ ̤̫ͥͤ͢ͅఉ̩͈୺࿝֓ͬ৽ಫ̱̹ȃ̱̽͂͜͜͜ఉ̩͈߱Ⴏͬ਋̫̹ॲش֓ͬȄઁ̩̈́͂ ͜΋ϋ΍σΗϋΠ̱͂̀࿨ၛ̧̭̦̀ͥ͂́ͦ͊Ȅ໰̞ͦ̈́͜၌ത̜̠͂̈́ͥ́ͧȃȤȤ̱͜ ̽͂߱͜͜Ⴏͬ਋̫̹ॲش̦࣭֓ಎͅഐ୨ͅ෻໦̯ͦͦ͊Ȅ̷̱̱̀͜͜ள૽͂֓ၷ୺࿝ز̦ ๞͈ͣෝႁ͂ခဥ଻ͬ෇ে̳ͦ͊Ȅ๞͉ͣ๱ુͅྶฒ̈́Ȯॲش֓ȯະ௷ેఠ̵ོ͈ࣣ̳͛ͩͬ ̭ͥ͂̈́ͤͅȄະຈါ́৐෴ͅਞͩͥॲش਀੅̦࣐̭͉ͩͦͥ͂ઁ̩̜̠̈́̈́ͥ́ͧȃȤȤॲ شڠ͈୺࿝എ̈́༓ޑ̳̭ͬͥ͂ͬབ̞ͭ́ͥ૽ۼ̦ංͣͦͥ౷պ͈ତ͉Ȅ̤ࣽ̈́͜๱ુͅઁ̈́ ̞ȃ1921ාͅఉ̩͈૽ș̷̦͈̠̈́͢ܥٛͬါݥ̱̹̦Ȅ̷ͦոြેޙ͉͕͂ͭ̓٨஝̯ͦ̀ ̞̞̈́ȷ51)_ȃ

ˏȁॲشڠޗ֗઀տ֥ٛ༭࣬੥

ȁ̷͉ͦ́Ȅ1920ාయ͈ॲشڠޗ͈֗৘ष͉͈̠͈̜̹͈̜̠̥̓̈́́̽́ͧ͢͜ȃ̷ͦͬྶ ̥̳̹ͣͥ͛ͅͅḘ̭͉̏́Ȅ঱ൺ͈࠲ࢫ͂༗ࢌͅ۾̳ͥγχͼΠΧ;Α݈ٛȪWhite House Conference on Child Health and Protectionȫ̽̀͢ͅอນ̯̹ͦȄॲشڠޗ֗ͅ۾̳ͥ༭࣬ ੥ͬમळͅ࠿൦̳ͥȃ̷̱̀Ȅ൚শ͈ॲشڠޗ͈֗৘ఠ͂Ȅॲش̦͈̠֓̓̈́͢ޗ֗ͬ࿒ঐ̷ ̠̱̞̹͈̥͂̀ͬྶ̥̳ͣͥͅȃ1930ාͅέȜό͹Ȝఱൡႀ̽̀͢ͅઉਬ̯̹ͦγχͼΠΧ ;Α݈͉ٛ́Ȅ֓ၷ΍ȜΫΑ̦ಕ࿒ͬਬ̹͛52)_{ȃ݈ٛٳटஜ͈16̥࠮ۼͅ1,200૽͈୺࿝ز̦} ထ๵಺औͅਲম̱Ȅ̷͈ࠫضγχͼΠΧ;Α݈͉ٛȄ༦૶͂඿ဘ঱͈࠲ࢫۯၑͬ৾ͤե̹̽༭ ࣬੥ͬඵॗ੄ๅ̱̹53)_{ȃ̷͈ల֚ॗ࿒̦Ȅॲشڠޗ֗઀տ֥ٛ̽̀͢ͅ༎ॴ̯̹͈ͦ́͜Ȅ֓} ঍Ȅۭࢌ঍Ȅ੩ॲ঍Ȅ̷๊̱֚̀ఱਤͅచ̳ͥॲشڠޗ֗ͬບث̱̞̹̀54)_{ȃॲشڠޗ֗઀տ} ֥͈ٛ༭࣬੥͉́Ȅڠ໐Ȫundergraduateȫޗ֗Ȅڠ໐௾ުࢃȪpostgraduateȫޗ֗Ȅఱڠ֭ Ȫgraduateȫޗ͈֗२ത̞͈̾̀ͅ಺औ̦༭̯̞࣬ͦ̀ͥȃ

Ȫˍȫڠ໐ޗ֗ ȁ༭࣬੥ͦ͊͢ͅȄڠ໐͈֓ڠޗ͉֗ͅȄ৽ͅ͏̹͈̾࿒എ̦̜ͥȃల͈֚࿒എ͉Ȅ๊֚എ̈́ ඤش͂ٸش͈হၷͬ௖؊ͅհ஠̧࣐̠̭̦̠͂́ͥ͢ͅͅ਱໦̈́ޗ֗͂߱ႯͬȄڠ୆ͅ೹ރ̳ ̭̜ͥ͂́ͥȃలඵ͈࿒എ͉Ȅఱڠ֭୆̦Ȅޗ֥Ȅࡄݪ৪Ȅ̜̞͉̜ͥͥ֓ၷ୺࿝໦࿤͈ࣞഽ ̈́߱Ⴏͬ਋̫̹୺࿝̹͈֓̈́ͥ͛ͅ༓ޑͬ௽̧̫̭̦̠ͥ͂́ͥ͢ͅȄ੿ြ͈ޗ֗͂߱Ⴏ͈̹ ͛ͅຈါ̈́ܖயͬ૸ͅັ̵̫̯̭̜ͥ͂́ͥȃ༭࣬੥͉Ȅڠ໐͈ॲشڠޗ̞֗̾̀ͅոئ͈͢ ̠ͅࡕ̱̩๡฻̱̞̀ͥȃȶఱఉତ͈ڠ୆͉Ȅ௾ުশ༦଻༗ࢌ͈ୣහͬ໅̠঩ڒ̦̞̈́ȃȤȤ ๞͉ͣȄఉ̩͈ાࣣ਱໦̈́ၑაഎޗ֗ͬ਋̫̞̥̱̞̦̀ͥͦ̈́͜Ȅ৘ष͈ࠐࡑ͉ະ௷̱̞̀ ͥȃ฼໦ոئ͈ڠ୆̱̥Ȅ௾ުশ́͘ͅ੫଻ͬ੄ॲ̵̯̹̭̦̞͂̈́ȷȃ̭͈̠̈́͢ેޙ̜́ ͈ͥ́Ȅ௾ު̜̞͉ͥڠպ਎ဓ͈̹͉͛ͅȄ਱໦̈́ॲش֓ၷͬ܄͚ࡄਘܢۼ̦ຈါ̜́ͥ͂Ȅ ༭࣬੥͉ঐഊ̱̞̀ͥ55)_{ȃ̷̱̀ڠ໐̤̫ͥͅॲشڠޗ͈֗৘ఠ͂Ȅ̷๊̦͕֚ͦ̓ͦ̓૷ၷ} ͅ࿨ၛ̞̥̽̀ͥͬ಺औ̳̹ͥ͛ͅȄͺις΃͈̳͓͈̀֓ڠࢷ͈֓ڠ໐ಿ͂ॲشڠشಿȄఉ ̩͈ພ֭Ȅ̷̱̀֓ڠࢷ͈௾ު୆ͅৗ࿚ນ̦௣ັ̯̹ͦȃ̷͈ࠫضȄոئ͈̠̈́͢ॲشڠޗ֗ ͈৘ఠ̦ྶ̥̹ͣ̈́̽ͅ56)_ȃ ȁঅාଷޗ࣐̞̳͓͈֗ͬ̽̀ͥ̀֓ڠࢷ͈ڠ໐ಿͅৗ࿚ນ̦௣ັ̯ͦȄ57ࢷ͈ڠ໐ಿ̥ͣఉ ̥ͦઁ̥̈́ͦۖᝈ̈́ٝ൞̦ං̹ͣͦȃॲشڠ͂ິ૽شڠ͈ڠشൡࣣͅॷ଼̥̞̠͂ৗ࿚ͅచ̱ ͉̀Ȅ42૽̦ॷ଼Ȅ14૽̦฽చ͂ٝ൞̱̹ȃॲشڠ͂ິ૽شڠ͉ةාۼޗ̯̞̥̞֗ͦ̀ͥ͂ ̠ৗ࿚ͅచ̱͉̀Ȅ38૽̦ˏȡːා୆Ȅ17૽̦ˎȡːා୆͂ٝ൞̱Ȅˎ૽͉ٝ൞̦̥̹̈́̽ȃ ̭͈ޗ͉֗ةා୆̥ͣই̧͓̜͛ͥ́ͥ͂এ̠̥̞̠͂ৗ࿚ͅచ̱͉̀Ȅ33૽̦ˏා୆̥ͣȄ 22૽̦ˎා୆̥ͣͅॷ଼͂ٝ൞̱̹ȃ֓ڠࢷ́ॲິ૽شޗ֗͂ܖயشڠޗ͈֗ۼͅ਱໦̈́௖۾ ۾߸̦̜̥̠̥̞̠ͥ̓͂ৗ࿚ͅచ̱͉̀Ȅ20૽̦࣊೰̱Ȅ28૽̦๛೰̱Ȅˏ૽͉ȶ̥̈́ͤȷ ̞̠͂ٝ൞̜̹́̽ȃࡄਘ̱͈֓͂̀ॲشພ൓޲ྩͬါݥ̳̭ͥ͂ͅॷ଼̥̞̠͂ৗ࿚ͅచ̱ ͉̀Ȅ53૽̦ॷ଼Ȅː૽̦฽చͬນྶ̱̹ȃ̱̥̱̦̈́ͣȄ̷͈̠̈́͢޲ྩͬڠ୆ͅه̳̭ͥ ̦͂خෝ̥̠̥̞̠̓͂ৗ࿚ͅచ̱͉̀Ȅ53૽ಎ30૽͈͙̦࣊೰̱Ȅ17૽͉ະخෝȄ˒૽͉໐ ໦എ̈́ॲشພ൓޲ྩͬه̳̭̦ͥ͂خෝ̜́ͥ͂ٝ൞̱̹ȃ ȁڠ୆̦۷ख़̳ͥഐ൚̈́੄ॲତ̞͉̾̀ͅȄ14૽̦ˑȡ 12࠯Ȅ21૽̦12 ȡ 20࠯Ȅ˔૽̦20 ȡ 30࠯Ȅ˓૽̦40 ȡ 50࠯͂ٝ൞̱̹ȃ50ࢷಎ39ࢷ͉Ȅڠ໐ಿ̦ഐ൚͂ࣉ̢ͥତ͈੄ॲͬڠ୆ͅ ۷ख̵़̯̭̦ͥ͂خෝ̜́ͤȄ10ࢷ͉ະخෝȄˍࢷ͉ܱව̦̥̹̈́̽ȃڠ୆̦੩ॲ̳ͥഐ୨̈́ ੄ॲତ̞͉̾̀ͅȄ30૽̦10 ȡ 15࠯̜̞͉ͥ20࠯Ȅ˒૽͉20࠯ոષȄˍ૽͉30࠯͂ٝ൞̱̹ȃ 37ࢷ͉́Ȅڠ໐ಿ̦ഐ൚͂ࣉ̢ͥତ͈ۛ৪ͬڠ୆ͅ੩ॲ̵̯̭̦ͥ͂خෝ̜̹̦́̽Ȅ̷͈̠ ̻15࠯ոષ͈੩ॲ̦ഐ൚̜́ͥ͂ࣉ̢̞̹͈͉ͣͦ̀ˏࢷ͈͙̜̹́̽ȃڠ໐ಿ̦ഐ൚͂ࣉ̢ ͥତ͈ۛ৪ͬڠ୆ͅ੩ॲ̵̯̭̦ͥ͂ະخෝ̈́17ࢷ͈̠̻Ȅ12ࢷ́ڠ໐ಿ͉12࠯ոئ͈੩ॲ̦ ഐ൚̜́ͥ͂ࣉ̢̞̹̀ȃ֓ڠฎআ͈ڠպ͈̹֚͛ͅාۼ͈ພ͈֭́ࡄਘ̦ါݥ̯̞̥ͦ̀ͥȄ

̷̹̠̜́ͥ̈́ͣ͊͘ॲش޲ྩ͉ါݥ̯̞̥̞̠ͦ̀ͥ͂ৗ࿚ͅచ̱͉̀Ȅ10ࢷ͈͙̦֓ڠฎ আ࣢਎ဓஜ֚ͅාۼ͈ພ֭ࡄਘͬါݥ̱̤̀ͤȄ̷͈̠̻˓ࢷ́ॲش޲ྩ̦ါݥ̯̞̹ͦ̀ȃ ȁ֓ڠࢷ͈́ॲິ૽شޗ̦֗Ȅ๊֚૷ၷ͈ါݥͬྖ̹̱̞̥̠̥̀ͥ̓ͅ۾̳ͥփࡉͬං̹ͥ ͛Ȅঅාଷه೾͈̜ͥ֓ڠࢷ͈Ȅ1921ා̥ͣ28ාͅहୠ̱̞̹̀˒ࢷ͈௾ު୆ͅৗ࿚ນ̦௣ັ ̯ͦȄ158૽̥ͣٝ൞̦̜̹̽ȃڠ໐୆̜̞͉ͥڠ໐௾ުࢃ͈ࡄਘ̱͈֓͂̀ॲشພ൓͈́޲ ྩܢۼͅ۾̱͉̀Ȅ16૽͉ॲش޲ྩ̦̩̈́Ȅ34૽͉ˎ̥࠮ոඤȄ77૽͉ˎȡ˒̥࠮Ȅ12૽͉˒ ̥࠮ոષ͂༭̱࣬Ȅ19૽͉ٝ൞̱̥̹̈́̽ȃ࣒݅́଎ນȆΑρͼΡȆדْȆດུͬঀ̽̀୰ྶ ̯̹̥̞̠ͦ͂ৗ࿚ͅచ̱͉̀Ȅ158૽ಎȄ଎ນ͉120૽ȄΑρͼΡ͉76૽Ȅדْ͉27૽Ȅດ ུ͉129૽̦ঀဥ̯̞̹ͦ̀͂ٝ൞̱̹ȃ૽ఘٜཎ࿅߿͈਎ުͅ۾̱͉̀Ȅ158૽͈௾ު୆ಎȄ 111૽͉૽ఘٜཎ࿅߿ͅచ̳ͥॲش਀੅ͬݺخ̯ͦȄ47૽̷͉ͦͬࡉͥඅࡀͬဓ̢̞̹ͣͦ̀ ̦Ȅ32૽͉૽ఘٜཎ࿅߿ͅచ̳ͥ਀੅ͬȄ95૽͉ރ။ͬ਋̫̞̥̹̀̈́̽ȃ̭͈̠̈́͢਀੅͞ ރ။ͅਰ̹̀ͣͦশۼ͉Ḙ͈̏ৗ࿚ٝͅ൞̱̹59૽ಎ࿩२໦͈͉֚10শۼոئȄ࿩२໦͈͉֚ 15শۼոئȄ̷̱̀ॼ͈ͤ࿩२໦͈͉֚16 ȡ 90শۼ͂ٝ൞̱̹ȃခෝ̈́ႉ઄ޗ֥͈ັ̧ഞ̞ ̱̈́́ু఺੄ॲ̦ݺخ̯̞̹̥̞̠ͦ̀͂ৗ࿚ͅచ̱͉̀Ȅ153૽̦ٝ൞̱Ȅ96૽͉ັ̧ഞ̞ ̦̜ͤȄ5૽͉෻௺̯̞̹ͦ̀ພ͉֭́ٸြ૷ၷ̦̩̈́Ȅॼ͈ͤఱ໐໦͉ັ̧ഞ̞͜ခෝ̈́ॲ ش֓ͥ͢ͅঐ൵̥̹̈́̽͜ȃ ȁॲشພ൓́ࡄਘ̱͈֓͂̀޲ྩ̦̜̹̥̠̥̞̠̽̓͂ৗ࿚ͅచ̱͉̀Ȅ78૽̦࣊೰̱Ȅ77 ૽̦๛೰̱̹ȃॲشພ൓ͅ޲ྩ̱̹78૽ಎȄˍ૽͉ࡄਘಎˍ૽͈ۛ৪͜۷ख̵̴़Ȅ12૽͉ˍ૽ ͜੄ॲ̵̯̥̹̈́̽͂ٝ൞̱̹ȃ˓૽͉ˍȡ˕૽ͬ۷ख़̱̀25૽͉൳ତͬ੄ॲ̵̯Ȅ21૽͉ 10 ȡ 19૽ͬ۷ख़̱̀19૽͉൳ତͬ੄ॲ̵̯Ȅ21૽͉20 ȡ 49૽ͬ۷ख़̱̀˔૽͉൳ତͬ੄ॲ̯ ̵Ȅ10૽͉50 ȡ 99૽ͬ۷ख़̱̀5૽͉൳ତͬ੄ॲ̵̯Ȅ˔૽͉100૽ոષͬ۷ख़̱̀ˎ૽̷͉ ͦոષͬ੄ॲ̵̯̹ȃ10૽͉۷ख़ତͬȄ˓૽͉੩ॲତͬ༭̱̥̹࣬̈́̽ȃ੄୆ஜ૷ၷͅ۾̱̀ ͉149૽͈௾ު୆̥ͣٝ൞ͬං̀Ȅ̷͈̠̻15૽͉޲ྩ̦̩̈́Ȅ134૽̷͉͈̠̈́͢૷ၷਫ਼͈́ ޲ྩͬࠐࡑ̱̞̹̀ȃ޲ྩܢۼ̞͈̾̀ٝͅ൞͉ఉအ́Ȅତ඾ۼ̥ͣȄତ਩ۼȄତ̥࠮ۼͅݞ ͍Ȅ๞͈ͣࠐࡑ๊֚ͬا̳̭͉ͥ͂ະخෝ̜̹́̽ȃ੄୆ࢃ૷ၷͅ۾̱͉̀151૽͈௾ު୆̥ ͣٝ൞ͬං̀Ȅ102૽̦̭ͦͬࠐࡑ̱̞̹̀ȃ ȁ40ࢷ͈ॲشڠ͂ິ૽شڠ͈ڠشಿ̥ͣٝ൞ͬං̹̦Ḙ͈̠̻̏20ࢷ͉́ॲشڠ͂ິ૽شڠ̦ ࣣ̱̹ࠫڠش̜́ͤȄ20ࢷ͉ඊၛ̱̹ڠش̜̹́̽ȃࢃ৪͈̠̻ˏࢷ͉́Ȅິ૽شڠ͉ٸشڠ ࣣ̱̞̹͂ࠫ̀ȃ40ࢷಎ13ࢷ̺̫̦Ȅڠࢷ͂۾Ⴒ̳ͥॲشພ֭ͬ঵̞̹̽̀ȃ̭͈ͦͣॲشພ ͈֭ૢరତ͉39 ȡ 200రͅݞ͍Ȅဘ঱ဥૢర͕͖͂൳ତ̜̹́̽ȃ˓ࢷ͉́۾Ⴒॲشພ͈֭ॲ شૢరତ͉100రոئȄ˒ࢷ͉́100రոષ̜̹́̽ȃ۾Ⴒॲشພ͈֭́੄ॲତ͉Ȅˏࢷ́500 ࠯ոئȄːࢷ́500 ȡ 2,000࠯Ȅˑࢷ́2,000࠯ոષȄˎࢷ͉༭̦̥̹࣬̈́̽ȃ۾Ⴒॲشພ֭́ ͈ڠ୆͈ࡄਘܢۼ͉Ȅ˕ࢷ́ˍ਩ۼ̥ͣˍ̥࠮͂ఉအ̜̹́̽ȃ۾Ⴒॲشພ֭́ڠ୆̦੄ॲ̯

̵ͥȄ̜̞͉ͥ༞ऎ̳ͥତ͉Ȅٝ൞̱̹11ࢷಎ˕ࢷ́20࠯ոئ̜̹́̽ȃˎࢷ͉́Ȅڠ୆͉60 ࠯ոષ͈੄ॲͬࡉͥܥ̦̜̹ٛ̽ȃ28ࢷ͉Ȅ48͈௙ࣣພ֭͂۾Ⴒ̱̞̀ͥ͂ٝ൞̱̹ȃ۾Ⴒ௙ ࣣພ֭́ڠ୆̦ࡉͥୃુ੄ॲତͅ۾̱͉̀29ࢷ̦ٝ൞̱Ȅ13ࢷ͉15࠯ոئȄ˕ࢷ͉15 ȡ 30࠯Ȅ ˓ࢷ͉30࠯ոષ̜̹́̽ȃ௙ࣣພ֭́ڠ୆̦ࡉͥພၑڠഎછ႕ͅ۾̱͉̀17ࢷ̦ٝ൞̱Ȅ12ࢷ ͉10࠯ոئȄˑࢷ͉10࠯ոષ̜̹́̽ȃ௙ࣣພ֭́ڠ୆̦࣐̠੄ॲତͅ۾̳ͥৗ࿚ͅచ̱͉̀ 28ࢷ̦ٝ൞̱Ȅ12ࢷ͉ˍȡ 10࠯Ȅ˓ࢷ͉10࠯ոષȄˍࢷ͉20࠯Ȅˍࢷ͉10 ȡ 30࠯̜̹́̽ȃ ̭͈28ࢷಎȄ˕ࢷ́ڠ୆͉ˍ࠯͜੄ॲ̵̯̥̹̦̈́̽Ȅ˒ࢷ́੄ॲͬ༞ऎ̳ͥܥ̦̜̹ٛ̽ȃ ȁ40ࢷಎ37ࢷ́੄୆ஜ૷ၷ̦࣐̞̹ͩͦ̀ȃ̭͈̠̻12͈૷ၷਫ਼͉਩ͅ10শۼոئ̱̥ٳ̞̀ ̴̤ͣȄ18͈૷ၷਫ਼͉਩ͅ10 ȡ 20শۼٳ̞̞̹̀ȃ͉͌͂̾਩ͅ40শۼٳ̞̞̹̀ȃ૷ၷਫ਼ ͅ೒̠ڠ୆ତ͉඾ͅˎȡ 18૽́Ȅ14ࢷ͉́ڠ୆͉૷ၷਫ਼́25শۼոષً̮̱̹ͬȃڎڠ୆̦ ̭͈૷ၷਫ਼́۷ख़̳ͥۛ৪ତ͉Ȅˑࢷ́10૽ոئȄ11ࢷ́10 ȡ 30૽Ȅːࢷ́31 ȡ 50૽Ȅ˕ࢷ ́50૽ոષȄˑࢷ́100૽ոષ̜̹́̽ȃ11ࢷ͉༭̱̥̹࣬̈́̽ȃڎڠ୆̦૷ၷਫ਼́૷ख़̳ͥ ۛ৪ତ͉Ȅ͕͈͂ͭ̓ڠࢷ́۷ख़̳ͥତ͕͖͂൳̲̜̹́̽ȃ27ࢷ́Ȅڠ୆͉ࣸ๕ٸݞ͍ࣸ๕ ඤࠗ௶ͬါݥ̯̹ͦȃ੄୆ࢃ૷ၷͅ۾̱͉̀33ࢷ̦׋א̱̞̀ͥ͂༭̱࣬Ȅ໹޳ٳ୭শۼ͉਩ ͅˎȡ˒শۼ̜̹́̽ȃ੄୆ࢃ૷ၷਫ਼ͅ೒̠ڠ୆ତ͉Ȅ༭̦̜̹࣬̽24ࢷ́ˍȡ 12૽Ȅ໹޳ ࿩˒૽̜̹́̽ȃ૷ၷਫ਼ً̮̳́শۼ͉Ȅ஖఼ଷ͈ાࣣ̜ͤ͜Ȅຈਘ̱̞̀ͥͅ࿩20ࢷ͉́ड ೩ːশۼ́डࣞ192শۼ̜̹́̽ȃ35ࢷ̦ু఺੄ॲ࣐̤ͬ̽̀ͤȄু఺੄ॲ࣐̠ͬڠ୆͉֓঍ ̽̀۬͢ͅආ̯̞̦ͦ̀ͥȄ24ࢷ͉౯௽എ́Ȅˎࢷ͉ȶાࣣͥ͢ͅȷ͂༭̱̹࣬ȃ17ࢷ͉́ڠ ୆͉শș۬ආ̱̈́́੄ॲͬਞၭ̵̯̹̦Ȅ̷͉ͦոئ͈̠̈́͢ાࣣͅࡠ೰̯̞̹ͦ̀ȃˑࢷ͉ ȶ̱͜ୃુ੄ॲ̜́ͦ͊ȷȄˎࢷ͉ȶୃુ̈́ࠐॲິȷ̜́ͦ͊Ȅˍࢷ͉ȶ۬ආئ́ˎ࠯ࠐࡑ̱̹ ࢃ́ȷ͂ٝ൞̱̹ȃু఺੄ॲ́ڠ୆̦੩ॲ̳ͥۛ৪ତͅ۾̱͉̀31ࢷ̦༭̱࣬Ȅːࢷ͉̱̈́Ȅ ˍࢷ͉ȶুอഎͅȷȄ18ࢷ͉10૽ոئȄ˔ࢷ͉10૽ոષ̜̹́̽ȃু఺੄ॲ́ڠ୆̦۷ख़̳ͥ ۛ৪ତͅ۾̱͉̀19ࢷ̦༭̱࣬Ȅ12ࢷ͉10૽ոئȄ˓ࢷ͉10૽ոષ̜̹́̽ȃ ȁࡄਘ̦֓ॲش޲ྩͅ๯̳͞শۼ͂Ȅພ֭́၌ဥخෝ̈́ॲشޗ֗ޗऺͅ۾̳ͥૂ༭ͬං̹ͥ͛ ͅȄ࣭ಎ͈ఉ̩͈ພ֭͜ͅৗ࿚ນ̦௣ັ̯ͦȄ241͈ॲش֓ၷ࣐̞ͬ̽̀ͥ௙ࣣພ̥֭ͣഐ୨ ̈́ٝ൞ͬං̹ȃࡄਘ͈֓ॲش޲ྩ͈ܢۼ͂੩ॲତ͈໹޳͉Ȅոئ͈೒̜̹ͤ́̽ȃාۼ੄ॲତ ̦1,000 ȡ 2,000࠯͈੘ٝࡄਘଷȪࡄਘܢۼͬ໦ڬ̱̀Ȅ։̹̈́̽ڎ୺࿝ش̤̞̀ͅ৘ঔࡄਘͬ ਋̫ͥଷഽȫ͈ພ͉֭́Ȅࡄਘ͈֓໹޳ॲش޲ྩܢۼ͉1.8̥࠮Ȅාۼ੄ॲତ̦300࠯ոئ͈ພ ͉֭́2.6̥࠮̜̹́̽ȃ੘ٝࡄਘଷ͈181͈ພ֭ಎȄ21͈ພ͉֭́ࡄਘ֓൚̹͈ͤ੄ॲତ͉25 ࠯ոئȄ28͈ພ͉֭́25 ȡ 49࠯Ȅ68͈ພ͉֭́50 ȡ 99࠯Ȅ64͈ພ͉֭́100࠯ոષȄ10͈ພ ͉֭́200࠯ոષ̜̹́̽ȃڎພ͈֭ࡄਘ֓൚̹͈ͤ໹޳੄ॲତ͈ड೩͉˕࠯Ȅड͉ࣞ309࠯́ ̜̹̽ȃ59͈ພ̦֭Ȅৗ࿚ນͅႥݷ̯̞̹ͦ̀11͈ࣣ໵છȪਰࠬȮ૸ఘ͈֚໐ࠬͅס̦ਰྖ̳ ̭ͥ͂ȯȄঊឞȮ৽̱͂̀ྎઑ૰ࠐ͈ݢࠣ̈́ជᓕอैȯȄఈ͈ඉࠬછȄஜ౾థ๕Ȯథ๕̦ඤঊݠ

࢛͈໐ͅպ౾̳͈ͥ́͜੄͈ࠬࡔ֦̳ͬ̈́ȯȄథ๕ญၗȄ໦༔ࢃ੄ࠬȄঊݠ෫ႨȄޛࣸ๕ȄၠॲȄ ॲ᫭ۜஅછȄঊݠٸළૡȫ̴͈̞̥ͦͬ༭̱̞̹̦࣬̀Ȅ11͈ࣣ໵છ̳͓̀ͬ༭̱̹͈͉࣬˓ ͈ພ͈͙̜̹֭́̽ȃ஠੄ॲ͈অ໦͈֚Ȅ२໦͈֚Ȅ̜̞͉ͥඵ໦͈̦֚਀੅੄ॲ̜̭́ͥ͂ ͉ೇ̱̞̭͉̩͂́̈́Ȅ̜ͥພ͉֭́஠੄ॲ867࠯ಎ644࠯Ȅ74.3ΩȜΓϋΠ͉ᱛঊȄథ঱ٝഢ੅Ȅ ೱؐ୨ٳ̜̹́̽ȃ ȁոષ͈̠̈́͢಺औࠫض̥ͣȄ༭࣬੥͉Ȅڠ໐̤̫ͥͅॲشڠޗ̞֗̾̀ͅոئ͈̠ࠫ͢ͅა ̱̞̀ͥȃȶͺις΃͈ॲشڠޗ਎༹͉Ȅఉ̩͈ڠࢷ́ႉ઄ޗऺ͈ະ௷ً̦ഽͅޑ಺̧̯ͦ̀ ̹̭͂ͬੰ̫͊Ȅ̥̈́ͤ૭̱໦͈̞͈̜̈́́ͥ͜ȃ ຈါ͈͉̈́Ȅၑაޗ֗ͬࡘ̳̭͉ͣ͂́ ̩̈́Ȅႉ઄ޗ֗ͬ௩̳̭̜͂́ͥ͞ȃِ̦࣭͈༦ఘঘཌၚ͉ȄȮπȜυΛΩȯఱၘ͈̞̥̈́ͥ ࣭ز̷͈ͦͬ͜ષ̤ٝ̽̀ͤȄ΃΢Θ͞ධༀ͈ة̷̥࣭̥͈ͦͬ͜ષ̞ٝ̽̀ͥȃ̳̻̈́ͩȄ ໲ྶଲٮ́ड͈̜ࣞ͌͂̾́ͥȃ̱͜͜਱໦̈́ॲشڠ͈ႉ઄ޗ֗୭๵̦೹ރ̯ͦͦ͊Ḙ͈̏ະ ྴန̈́ેޙͬഁୃ̧̳̭̦ͥ͂́ͥȷȃ༭࣬੥ͦ͊͢ͅȄͺις΃͉́Ȅঘॲͬੰ̞̀Ȅාۼ 220ྔ૽ոષ͈ঊރ̦୆̤ͦ̀ͤ͘Ȅ˝˩˝͈ॳ೰ͦ͊͢ͅȄ70ྔ૽͈੫଻ྀ̦ාພ֭́੄ॲ ̱̞̀ͥȃ̭͈̭͉͂Ȅޗ֗࿒എͅ၌ဥ̧̳̭̦̞ͥ͂́̈́ႉ઄ޗऺ̦ఉ̞̭͂ͬা̱̞̀ͥȃ ਲ̽̀Ȅȶຈါ͈͉̈́Ȅͤ͢ఉ̩͈ॲشૢర͂Ȅޗ֗ͅ၌ဥ̧̳̭̦ͥ͂́ͥͤ͢ఉ̩͈ۛ৪ ̜́ͥȷȃ̭͈ຈါͬྖ̹̳̹͛ͅȄ֓ڠࢷݞ͍ఱڠ͈׋אழ૕͉Ȅຈါ̈́୭๵ͬ೹ރ഼̳ͥ ႁ࣐̫̞ͬͩ̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́ȃ߃ාȄͺις΃̤̫ͥͅॲشȆິ૽شহၷ͈କ੔ͬષ̬̭ͥ͂ͬ ࿒എ̱͂̀Ȅͺις΃ິ૽ش֓ڠٛȪAmerican Gynecological SocietyȫȄͺις΃ॲິ૽شȆ ໜ໐ٸش֓঍ٛȄ˝˩˝͈ॲິ૽شȆໜ໐ٸشڠ໐̦ࣣٛ໵̱̀Ȅͺις΃ॲິ૽شտ֥ٛ ȪAmerican Board of Obstetrics and Gynecologyȫͬอ௷̵̯̹ȃఉ଼̩͈ض̦ං̹̦ͣͦȄ

̱͜͜ॲشڠ̦ඤشڠ͞ٸشڠ͂൳൝͈ບثͬං̠̳͂ͥ̈́ͣ͊͢Ȅ഼̯ͣ̈́ͥႁ̦޽ݢͅຈ ါ̜́ͥ57)_ȃ ȁ̷̱̀༭࣬੥͉Ȅոئ͈̭͂ͬۑ̱̹࣬ȃ֓ڠࢷ̷͂ͦͅ۾Ⴒ̳ͥພ֭́Ȅॲشڠ͂ິ૽ش ڠ͈ڠشͬൡࣣ̳̭ͥ͂Ȅ঩ڒ͈̜ͥॲش֓͂ິ૽ش͈͙֓ͬḘ͈̏ͦͣൡࣣ̯̹ͦڠش͈ޗ ֥ͅහྵ̳̭ͥ͂Ȅඅਂພၑڠ͈৘ࡑ࣒ਠȄ૽ఘٜཎ࿅߿৘ਠȄႉ઄ພ֭৘ਠͬ̽͂͜ࢩํս ̹࣐̠̭ͩ̽̀͂ͅȄ਎ު̤̞̀ͅ଎ນȄ࿅߿ȄޗऺȄΑρͼΡȄדْͬ̽͂͜၌ဥ̳̭ͥ͂Ȅ ܖயشڠޗ֗͂ॲິ૽شڠޗ֗ͬ̽͂͜ྟ୪ͅ۾Ⴒ̵̯̭ͥ͂Ȅ֓঍྾ݺ͈̹͉͛ͅȄ૭̱໦ ͈̞̈́ॲش֓ၷͬ܄͚֚ාۼ͈੘ٝࡄਘͬါݥ̳̭ͥ͂Ȅࣣ໵છฺ̠ͬછ႕ͅၛ̻̠ٛܥٛͬ ௩̳̭͂͞Ȅഐ୨̈́۬ආئ̤̞̀ͅഐ൚̈́ତ͈੄ॲͅၛ̻̠ٛܥٛͬڠ୆ͅဓ̢̭ͥ͂Ȅڠ୆ ͥ͢ͅু఺੄ॲ͉ޗ֥͈ॲش̦֓۬ආ̳̭ͥ͂Ȅႉ઄ॲشڠޗ֗̽͂͜ͅ਱໦̈́শۼͬڬͤ൚ ̭̀ͥ͂Ȅޗ֗শۼ͂୭๵๊͉֚ٸشڠ̷͈ͦ͂൳൝̳̭ͥ͂ͅȄ਋థஜȄ੄୆ஜȄ੄୆শȄ ੄୆ࢃ͈ူࢌ̞̾̀ͅમळ̈́ޗ࣐̠̹֗ͬ͛ͅȄ਱໦̈́୭๵ͬ၌ဥ̧̳̭̦̠̳ͥ͂́ͥ͢ͅ ̭ͥ͂Ȅ࡛हޗ֗ဥͅ၌ဥ̯̞̞ͦ̀̈́ພ͈֭ॲشۛ৪ͬ၌ဥخෝ̳̭ͥ͂ͅȄ֓ڠࢷ͈၎ਘ

༒။͉൳အ͈੥৆ͬनဥ̳̭ͥ͂Ȅ̜̈́̓́ͥ58)_ȃ Ȫˎȫڠ໐௾ުࢃޗ֗ݞ͍ఱڠ֭ޗ֗ ȁॲشڠ͈ڠ໐௾ުࢃޗ֗ݞ͍ఱڠ֭ޗ֗ͅ۾̱̀Ȅ༭࣬੥͉ষ͈̠͢ͅ੆͓̞̀ͥȃڠ໐ॲ شڠޗ֗͂ఱڠ֭ޗ͈֗ۼ͉ͅȄ๱ુͅྟ୪̈́۾߸̦̜ͥȃ̱͜͜ڠ໐ޗ̦֗ະ਱໦̜́ͦ͊Ȅ ఱڠ֭ޗ͈֗́डਞഎ̈́ࡄݪͅຈါ̈́ഐ؊଻ͬ૸̧̫̭̦̞̾ͥ͂́̈́ͅȃ୆ॲഎ̈́ࠫضͬ༗ બ̳̹͉ͥ͛ͅȄၰ̧༷̦̻ͭ͂ଷഽا̯̞̫̞ͦ̀̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́ȃ̱̥̱̦̈́ͣȄ20ଲܮ੝ ൮͈ͺις΃͉́Ȅ࿤૤എ̈́৹̞ڠ໐௾ު୆̦ॲشڠ͈ఱڠ֭ه೾ͅૺ̧͚̭̦͈͉͂́ͥȄ ˎȡˏ̥ਫ਼̱̥̥̹̈́̽ȃ̱͜͜਱໦̈́ޗ͈֗ܥٛͬං̹̫ͦ͊ȄπȜυΛῼ࣐̥̫̈́ͦ͊ ̥̹̈́ͣ̈́̽ȃॲشڠޗ֗տ֥ٛȪCommittee on Obstetric Education of Physiciansȫ͈಺ औͦ͊͢ͅȄࣽ඾́͜ષݭ͈ॲشڠޗ֗ͬ਋̫̹̞͂བ̞ͭ́ͥ૽ۼ͂̽̀ͅȄܥ͉ٛ਱໦́ ͉̞̈́59)_ȃ

ȁષݭ͈֓ڠޗ֗ͅഐဥ̯ͦͥڠ໐௾ުࢃޗ֗͂ఱڠ֭ޗ̞̠֗͂࡞ဩ͉ྫओ༆ͅঀဥ̯ ̞͈ͦ̀ͥ́Ȅ௖൚̈́ࢋٜ͂ई၄̦୆̲̞̦̀ͥȄոئ͈೰̦݅Ȅͺις΃֓شఱڠފٛ ȪAssociation of American Medical Collegesȫ ͈ ֓ ڠ ޗ ֗Ȇ ޗ ਎ ༹ տ ֥ ٛȪCommittee on Medical Education and Pedagogicsȫ̽̀͢ͅ೹া̯̞͈̜ͦ̀ͥ́ͥ͜ȃڠ໐௾ުࢃޗ֗͂ ͉Ȅ֓ڠ͈௾ު୆ͅచ̱̀೒ુఱڠۯၑئոٸ࣐́ͩͦͥ֓ڠޗ̜֗́ͥȃఱڠۯၑئ࣐́ͩ ͦͥાࣣ͉ͅȄ೒႕࢖ٳ࣒ज̤̞̜̀́ͥͅȃ̷༹͈༷ა͉ఉအ̜̦́ͥȄఉ̩͉࣒݅ͬಶ̞ ̹ͤ৘׵ͬ࿒̱̹̳͈̜ͤͥ́ͥ͜ͅȃ̷͈৽ါ̈́අಭ͉Ȅ̯ͣͅષݭ͈֓ڠޗ̜֗́ͤȄࡄ ݪ̷͉͈ါள͉̞́̈́ȃ࣒ज͉೒႕ౣܢۼ́Ȅ֚਩ۼ̥ͣ˒̥࠮̜̦́ͥȄ֚ාۼͅڐಫ̯ͦ ̭̜ͥ͂ͥ͜ȃఱڠ͈ڠպͬ਎ဓ̯̭̜̱ͦͥ͂ͥ͜Ȅୃ͈ܰਘၭબ੥͞બྶ੥ͬڕං̳̭ͥ ̜͂ͥ͜ȃ̭ͦͅచ̱̀ఱڠ֭ޗ͉֗͂Ȅ࢖ਤמ୆ڠȄ֓شڠȄႉ઄ش࿒̥ͣ஖఼̱̹අ༆̈́ ֓ڠࡄݪͬఱڠ࣐̠̭̜́͂́ͥȃ࢖ਤמ୆ڠࢷȄ࢖ਤ֓ڠࢷȄ௙ࣣఱڠ֭Ȅ֓ڠࠏఱڠ֭Ȅ ֓ڠࢷ͈ఱڠ֭ه೾͈۬ආئ̜ͥͅȃ֓ڠ͈֚୺࿝ش࿒͈༓ޑͅ୺ැ̳֚ͥාۼ̦ड೩ࡠ͈ఱ ڠ֭हڠܢۼ̜́ͤȄఱڠ͈֭ڠպ৾ං͈̹͈͛၎ਘౙպ̦ဓ̢ͣͦȄड೩ඵාۼ́ਘআ࣢Ȅ ड೩२ාۼ́ฎআ࣢ͬ৾ං̧̳̭̦ͥ͂́ͥ60)_ȃ ȁৗ࿚ນȄ಺औȄ੥۰̽̀͢ͅخෝ̈́ࡠͤۖ஠̈́঩ၳͬږ༗഼̱̠͂͢ႁ̱̹ࠫضȄྶ̥ͣͅ ̹̈́̽ͺις΃͈ڠ໐௾ުࢃݞ͍ఱڠ͈֭ॲشڠޗ͈֗ါ࿩͉ոئ͈೒̜ͤ́ͥȃ̭͈༭࣬੥ ͈̹͛ͅȄڠ໐௾ުࢃ͈ॲشڠޗ͉֗ոئ͈߲ͅ໦႒̯̞ͦ̀ͥȃȪˍȫఱڠ͈֓ڠࢷȄ֓ڠފٛȄ ̜̞͉ͥਗמ୆ޫ̽̀͢ͅࢃ׳̯̞ͦ̀ͥ࢖ٳ࣒जȃȪˎȫ֓ڠފ̷͈ٛఈ͈ழ૕̽̀͢ͅ೹ ރ̯̞࣒ͦ̀ͥजȃॲشڠ͉͕͈֚ͭ໐͉̜̦́ͥȄ๊֚ͅ೦ࣣ̞̦̹ͤ৾ͦ༫گഎ࣒̈́݅ඤ ယ̜́ͥȃȪˏȫພ͈֭́ॲشڠ͂ິ૽شڠ͈ࡄਘȃȪːȫఱڠۯၑئ͈ౣܢۼ͈ॲشڠ࣒ज́Ȅ ̷̤̩ͣॲشڠͅೄ୪۾߸̳ͥش࿒͈ޗ֗ͬ܄͚61)_ȃ ȁ಺औͦ͊͢ͅȄ10ਗȪ΃ςέ΁σΣͺȄέυςΘȄΐοȜΐͺȄͺͼ΂χȄ΃ϋΎΑȄΉϋ

ΗΛ΅ȜȄιςȜρϋΡȄΣνȜπȜ·Ȅ΂·ργζȄ;ͻΑ΋ϋΏϋȫ́ॲشڠ͈࢖ٳ࣒ज ഼࣐̠̹͈ͬ͛ႁ̦Ȅఉ̥ͦઁ̥̯̞̈́ͦ̈́ͦ̀ͥȃ̭͉ͦ֓ڠࢷȄਗၛఱڠ͈࢖ٳ࣒जȄਗ ̜̞͉ͥ౷֖͈֓ڠފٛ͂ފႁ̳ͥਗמ୆ޫ̽̀͢ͅࢃ׳̯̞ͦ̀ͥȃ ȁ੘࣒ٝज͉Ȅॲشڠহၷ͈٨஝͈̹͈͛ၑேഎ̈́਀౲̜̞̠͈̦́ͥ͂փࡉ͈௙փ̜̹́̽ȃ ̯ͣͅȄ̷ͦͬ਋࣒̳ͥ֓঍̦໅̠๯ဥ͈۷ത̥ͣ͜Ȅ࣒जͬٳ࣒̳ͥழ૕͈۷ത̥ͣ͜Ȅ֓ ঍ͅ৘கഎ౶ে̹̳ͬͣ͜ड͜ࠐफഎ༹༷̜̈́́ͥȃ֓঍֚ͬ਩ۼոષ͜হၷ̥ͣ׿̰̫̭ͥ ͉͂Ȅ૬࣫̈́࿚ఴ̜́ͥȃࠐफഎఅ৐ͅح̢̀Ȅڰ൲ݶത̥ͣၗ̭ͦͥ͂̽̀͢ͅޑ̞ͣͦͥ ୆ڰ๯͈௩ح͉Ȅਹါ̈́࿚ఴ̜́ͥȃޗྀ֥̦਩ˑȡ˒૽͈֓঍͂૶ྟͅ୪૘̳̭ͥ͂ͥ͢ͅ ࢡגޣ͉Ȅুྶ̜́ͥȃ̭͈ޗ༹༷͈֗डఱ͈၌ത͉Ȅ̱֓͜͜঍̦֓ڠ͈ಎ૤౷࣐̩͂ͅȄ ఱڠ̞̠۪͂ޏ͂୭๵͈۷ത̥ͣఱڠ͈࿚ఴੜၑ༹༷ͅਲ̽̀ޗ֗ͬ਋̫͈ͥͅచ̱̀Ȅ੘ٝ ࣒ज͉́౷ࡓ২̤̫ٛͥͅ౷ࡓ͈࿚ఴ̱͈͂̀ඤယ̦֓঍ͅ೹̯̭̜ܳͦͥ͂́ͥȃৗ࿚ນͅ చ̳ͥٝ൞̥ͣޑ಺̯ͦͥത͉Ȅޗ֥͈஖఼ͬಕփ̱࣐̠̭͈̀͂ਹါ଻̜́ͥȃ̞̠͈͉͂Ȅ ࣒ज଼͈͉ࢗȄȶ̷଼̱ͦͬଛ̬ͥȷޗ֥͈ෝႁͅఱ̧̩ջం̱̞̥̜̀ͥͣ́ͥȃ ȁ༭࣬੥ͦ͊͢ͅȄ֓঍̷̜̞͉͈ٛͥఈ͈౬ఘ̤̞̀ͅȄॲشڠ͈͙͈࣒जͬ೹ރ̳ͥদ͙ ͉̯̞̥̹̈́ͦ̀̈́̽ȃ֚໐͈֓঍౬ఘ͉Ȅ๊֚֓ڠ͈࡛૖৪ठޗ͈̹͈֗͛ளୀ̱̞ͣܥٛ ͬ೹ރ̱̤̀ͤȄ̳͓͉̞̦̀́̈́ఉ̩͈୺࿝໦࿤ͬ܄̞ͭ́ͥȃ̭͈ͦͣ౬ఘ͉Ȅ๊֚֓ͅ ޗ֗ષခף̈́Ȅ೦ࣣ̞̦̹࣒ͤ৾ͦ݅ඤယͬ೹ރ഼̳ͥႁ̱̞ͬ̀ͥȃ࣭ݞ͍౷֖͈ॲش֓঍ ٛݞ͍ິ૽ش֓঍͉ٛȄޗ֗എࣣٛͅ੄୘̳ͥ૽șͅచ̱̀Ȅཅີ̈́ޗ֗ͬ೹ރ̱̞̀ͥȃང ࿚৪͉ࣣ͈ٛ͒੄୘ͬۥ̯ࠞͦȄশ͉݈ͅაͅ४ح̳̠ͥ͢ါ୏̯ͦͥȃა໲͈࢛൮อນͬ໳ ̞̹݈ͤა̱̹̳̭̥ͤͥ͂ͣංͣͦͥ၌ף͂൳အȄࡢ૽എ̈́࢐ष͜Ȅڠ໐௾ުࢃ͈ਹါ̈́༓ ޑ̜́ͥȃ̭̠̱̹࡛૖৪ठޗ͉֗Ȅ֓ڠڰ൲͈ಎ૤౷͈̳̪߃̩̞ͥ֓ͅ঍͂̽̀ͅȄఱ̧ ̈́ࠃ͙͂̈́ͥȃॼැ̦̈́ͣȄޗ֗࿒എͅ۾̳ͥࡠͤȄႉ઄୭๵̦৘ဥا̯̞̞ͦ̀̈́ાਫ਼̦ఉ ̥̹̽ȃ

ȁ˝˩˝͈֓ڠޗ֗͂ພ֭ͅ۾̳ͥտ֥ٛȪCouncil on Medical Education and Hospitalsȫ ̽̀͢ͅ෇خ̯̞ͦ̀ͥ୺࿝֓ڠࡄਘ͈֚။ນͦ͊͢ͅȄॲشڠݞ͍ິ૽شڠ̜̞͉ͥၰ༷͈ ୺࿝֓ڠࡄਘͬ೹ރ̳ͥພ͉֭83̜́ͥȃ̭͈ͦͣພ֭̽̀͢ͅ೹ރ̯̞ͦ̀ͥ֓ڠࡄਘ௙ତ ͉167࠯̜́ͤȄິ૽شڠ͈͙̦˓࠯Ȅॲشڠ͈͙̦28࠯Ȅॲشڠ͂ິ૽شڠ͈ൡࣣ̦132࠯́ ̜ͥȃ̭͈֚။ນͅࠇश̯̞̞ͦ̀̈́ພ͈֭୺࿝֓ڠࡄਘ͈ତ͉Ȅະྶ̜́ͥȃ༭࣬੥͉Ḙ͈̏ ਅ͈ࠐࡑ̦Ȅ౷֖২ٛ͂̽̀͜ͅȄޗ֗ͬਞ̢̀୺࿝໦࿤͈੔๵̳ͬͥ֓঍͂̽̀͜ͅȄఱ̧̈́ ၌ף̞̭̈́̽̀ͥ͂ͬͅບث̱̞̀ͥȃ̱̥̱̦̈́ͣḘ͈̏ޗ͉֗Ȅఉ̥ͦઁ̥̈́ͦࡢ༆എ̈́଻ ৗ͈͈̜́ͤ͜Ȅڠ໐௾ުࢃݞ͍ఱڠ͈֭ॲشڠޗ֗ͬ௯ૺ̳̹͈ͥ͛ழ૕എ഼ႁ͉̞́̈́ȃ ȁͺις΃͈̳͓͈̀˝ݭ͈֓ڠࢷͅৗ࿚ນ̦௣ັ̯ͦȄॲشڠشͅ۾๊̳֚ͥഎૂ༭ͅح̢ ̀Ȅڎڠࢷ́೹ރ̯̞ͦ̀ͥڠ໐௾ުࢃݞ͍ఱڠ֭ه೾ͅ۾̳ͥૂ༭͜ݥ̹͛ͣͦȃ42ࢷ̥ͣ

ٝ൞̦̜ͤȄ̷͈̠̻26ࢷ̦ڠ໐௾ުࢃݞ͍ఱڠ֭ޗ࣐̞֗ͬ̽̀ͥ͂༭̱̹࣬ȃৗ࿚ນ͉́Ȅ ޗ͉֗ոئ͈ˑਅ႒ͅ໦႒̯̹ͦȃȪˍȫ࡛૖৪ठޗ࣒֗ਠȄȪˎȫ֚ාոئ͈࣒ਠȄȪˏȫ֚ ාոષ͈࣒ਠȄȪːȫ୺࿝֓ޗ͈̹͈࣒֗͛ਠȄȪˑȫޗ֥ူ଼͈̹͈࣒͛ਠȃ೰݅ͅਲ̽̀Ȅ ֚ාոષ͈Ȅఱڠۯၑئ͈࣒ਠ͈͙̦ఱڠ֭ޗ֗͂໦႒̯̹ͦȃਲ̽̀Ḙ͈̏༭࣬੥͉́Ȅ࡛ ૖৪ठޗ࣒֗ਠݞ͍֚ාոئ͈࣒ਠ͉ȶڠ໐௾ުࢃޗ֗ȷ̱͂̀Ȅ֚ාոષ͈࣒ਠݞ͍୺࿝֓ ͂ޗ֥ူ଼͈̹͈࣒͛ਠ͉ȶఱڠ֭ޗ֗ȷ̱݈͂̀ა̯̞ͦ̀ͥȃ ȁ11ࢷ̦Ȅ࡛૖৪ठޗ࣒֗ਠ࣐̞ͬ̽̀ͥȃවڠ͈̹͈͛ޗ֗঩ڒ͉য̤̀ͤȄ̳͓͈̀ڠࢷ ͉Ȅ঎ܐ৪̦֓ڠ͈௾ު୆̜̭́ͥ͂ͬါݥ̱̞̀ͥȃ࣒ਠ͈ܢۼ͉Ȅ֚਩ۼ̥ͣส਩ۼ́͘ ఉအ̜́ͥȃ֚਩ۼ൚̹͈ͤޗ֗শۼ͉Ȅ18শۼ̥ͣ48শۼ́͘ͅݞ̞ͭ́ͥȃ࣒ਠ͈ࣣࠗޗ ֗শۼ͉Ȅडౣ̦18শۼ̥ͣ36শۼ́Ȅडಿ̦240শۼ̜́ͥȃ൚ட̷͈̠̈́͢শۼ͈௖֑͉Ȅ ࣒ਠ͈࿒എȄ၌ဥخෝ̈́ޗऺȄ̷̱̀ޗ͈֗ํս͈̹̜͛́ͥȃˎࢷոٸ͉Ȅၑა͂͂͜ͅ۷ ख़͂৘ܿͬ܄͚࣒ਠͬ೹ރ̱̞̹̀ȃ˕ࢷ͉́Ȅڠ୆͉੄୆ஜ૷ၷਫ਼́൱̴̥̫̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣȄ ˔ࢷ͉́Ȅڠ୆͉੄୆ࢃ૷ၷਫ਼́൱̞̹ȃˏࢷ̱̥ڠ୆ͅ੄ॲͬੜၑ̳̭ͥ͂ͬ෇̴̤͛̀ͣȄ ̷͈̠̻͈ˍࢷ͉̭͉́ͦ஖఼̜̹́̽ȃ10ࢷ̦૽ఘٜཎ࿅߿͈ࣜ࿒̞̾̀ͅ༭̱࣬Ȅ˕ࢷ̦ ̷͈̠࣒̈́͢ਠͬ೹ރ̱̞̹̀ȃˑࢷ͉́ຈਘȄˍࢷ͉́஖఼Ȅˎࢷ͉́ຈਘ͉̩́̈́Ȅˍࢷ ̥͉ͣ༭̦̥̹࣬̈́̽ȃࠏൡഎ̈́৘ࡑ͉ˑࢷ́ါݥ̯̞̹ͦ̀ȃˍࢷ͉́஖఼Ȅˍࢷ͉́ۑ࣬Ȅ ˏࢷ͉́ါݥ̯̞̥̹ͦ̀̈́̽ȃ ȁةා͈͜ۼȄڠ໐ه೾͈ల२ාষ͂లঅාষ̤̫ͥͅႉ઄ޗ͉֗Ȅڠ୆͈ۛ৪͈͂୪૘ͬ૭ ̱໦͈̞͈̳͉̈́ͥ͜ͅͅະ਱໦̜́ͤȄڠ୆͉ພ֭֚́ාۼ࢐య޲ྩً̱̮̳̭̦ͬ̀͂ະ خ̜ࠧ́ͥ͂এ̧̹ͩͦ̀ȃਲ̽̀Ȅ֚໐͈֓ڠࢷ͉Ȅలࡼාষ̜̞͉ͥࡄਘාষͬȄ֓ڠฎ আ࣢͈̹͈͛ຈଌ̱̞̹͂̀ȃ࡛हȄ12ࢷ̦Ȅలࡼාষ̞̱̈́ࡄਘාষͬါݥ̱̞̀ͥȃພ֭ ࡄਘාষ͉ȄͺρΑ΃੔ਗȄ΋υϋΫͺඅ༆౷ߊȄβϋΏσόͿΣͺȄΣνȜΐλȜΐȜȄυ ȜΡͺͼρϋΡȄΦȜΑΘ΋ΗȄχΏϋΠϋȄηΏ΄ϋȄͼςΦͼȄΟρ;ͿͺȄͺͼ΂χȄ ΍;ΑΘ΋ΗȄξΗȄ;ͻΑ΋ϋΏΰȄ֓঍྾ݺͅະخࠧ̈́ຈါૄ࠯̱͂̀नဥ̯̞ͦ̀ͥȃ ȁఱڠ֭ޗ͉֗ڠ໐௾ުࢃޗ֗ͤ͢͜ಿܢۼͅݞ͐ȃ̞̠͈͉͂Ȅఱڠ֭ه೾͉Ȅͤ͢༫گഎ ́ഔೲഎ̺̥̜ͣ́ͥȃޗ͉֗ၑேͅ߃̩Ȅࡄݪ̦ਹါ̈́໐໦ͬ୸͛Ȅႉ઄ޗ๊͉֚֗֓ͅڬ ͤ൚̞͈̀ͣͦ̀ͥͬ͜ષٝͥȃ֚ාոષ͈࣒ਠ͉́Ȅ࣒ਠܢۼ͉֚ා̥ͣ10ා͂։̈́ͤȄ̷ ̷͉͈࣒ͦਠ͈࿒എȄ̳̻̈́ͩ࿹๊̹֚ͦ֓ͬူ଼̳͈̥ͥȄ̷ͦ͂͜୺࿝֓ͬူ଼̳͈̥ͥȄ ̞̠͂ၑဇ́୰ྶ̯ͦͥȃ ȁ19ࢷಎȄޗ̱̹֗୺࿝͈֓ତ͉Ȅ༭̦̜̹࣬̽13ࢷ́ˍ૽̥ͣȶ50૽߃̩ȷ́́͘Ȅࣣ͉ࠗ 150૽ոئ̜̹́̽ȃ˒ࢷ͉༭̱̥̹࣬̈́̽ȃޗ਎૖ͅਖ̩੔๵̳̹͈ͬͥ͛ޗ֗ͅ۾̱͉̀Ȅ ྶږ̷͈̠̈́͢ͅޗ֗ͬ೹ރ̱̞͈͉̀ͥ˔ࢷ͈͙́Ȅˍࢷ͉ȶই̹̥̽͊ͤ͘ȷȄఈ͉ȶܛ བ̱̞̀ͥȷȄ̷̱̀ˍࢷ͉ୃޗ਎͉̩́̈́ޗ֥̱͂̀߱Ⴏ̱̞̹̀ȃͺις΃͉́Ȅ1,000૽

ոષ͈֓঍̦Ȅॲິ૽شޗ֗ͅਲম̱̞̀ͥȃ֓ڠࢷ̤̞̀ͅޗ֥ူ଼͈̹͈͛୭๵̦ະ਱໦ ̜́ͤȄޗ֗૖ͅਖ̞̞̀ͥ૽ۼ͈ఉ̩͉Ȅခෝ̈́ႉ઄֓Ȅޗ֥Ȅࡄݪ৪ͥ۬͢ͅආ͞ޗ֗ͬ ਋̴̫ͅȄু໦ু૸഼͈ႁ଼́ಿ̧̱̹̭͉̀͂ྶ̥̜ͣ́ͥȃ˝ݭ͈֓ڠࢷ65ࢷಎ֚။ນͅ Ⴅݷ̯̞ͦ̀ͥ63ࢷ͈ॲິ૽شڠش͉ͅȄࣣࠗ1,045ྴ̦हୠ̱̤̀ͤȄ396ྴ̦ॲشڠͬޗ̢Ȅ 343ྴ̦ິ૽شڠͬޗ̢Ȅ306ྴ̦ॲشڠ͂ິ૽شڠ͈ၰ༷ͬޗ̢̞̹̀ȃ ȁոષ͈಺औࠫض̥ͣȄ༭࣬੥͉Ȅڠ໐௾ުࢃݞ͍ఱڠ̤̫֭ͥͅॲشڠޗ̞֗̾̀ͅȄոئ ͈̠ࠫ͢ͅა̱̞̀ͥȃఱ໐໦͈ິ૽شহၷ͉Ȅ੄ॲ͈਀ಁͦͥ͢ͅະസࣣ̈́ࠫض͈হၷͅ۾ Ⴒ̱̞̀ͥ͂෇ে̯̞ͦ̀ͥȃॲشڠ͈̜ͣͥ͠࿂ͅ௮̦࠘૬̩̞̈́ິ૽ش͉֓Ȅ੄ॲාႢ͈ ੫଻ͅచ̳ͥ਀੅࣐̠ͬশͅ஠ఘഎͅୃ̱̩෤՜̳ͥෝႁͬ৐̱̠̽̀͘ȃئໜ໐ͬ୺࿝̱ͅ ̞̞̀̈́ॲش͉֓Ȅॲش͈৽ါ̈́ໜ໐হၷ࣐̠ͬෝႁ̦͕̞͂ͭ̓̈́ȃ੫଻ͅచ̱̀੃Ⴏ̱̹ ॲິ૽شহၷͬঔ̱Ȅ੄ॲ͈ະസࣣ̈́ࠫضͬཡ̪̹͉͛ͅȄॲشڠ͈ڠ໐ޗ֗͂൳အȄ਱໦̈́ ఱڠ֭ޗ̦֗ຈါ̜́ͥȃຈါ̈́ల֚༜͉Ȅޗ֗ঔ୭̤̫ͥͅॲشڠ͂ິ૽شڠ͈໦࿤͈ۖ஠ ̈́ൡࣣ̜́ͥȃൡࣣ̯̹ͦڠش͉́Ȅ஠૽֥̦Ȅළॲິ͈ೄ୪হၷݞ͍׿ڞহၷ͈ޗ֗ݞ͍৘ கȄݞ͍ၰڠش͈́ޗ֗ͬါݥ̯ͦͥȃఉ̩͈ਗ࣐̞́ͩͦ̀ͥޗ͉֗Ȅ੘࣒ٝज͞࢖ٳ࣒ज ̦Ȅఱܰ࿅̈́֓ڠഎಎ૤౷̥ͣၗ̹ͦȄ̜̞͉ͥࡄਘͅ४ح̧̳̭̦̞ͥ͂́̈́֓঍ͅȄঁࠣ ͂౶ে̹̳ͬͣ͜ခף༹༷̜̭̈́́ͥ͂ͬা̱̞̀ͥȃ̭͈࣒ͦͣज͉৘கഎ́Ȅબྶफ͙͈ ম৘͈͙ͬ֓঍ͅ೹ރ̱Ȅ֚শഎၠ࣐̦ݺယ̧̯͓͉̞ͦͥ́̈́ȃॲشڠ͈٨஝͉Ȅॲشڠ͈ ڠ໐ޗ֗ݞ͍ఱڠ֭ޗ͈֗٨ڟ͈͙̽̀͢ͅో଼̯ͦͥȃ̭͈̭͉͂Ȅ༦૶͂඿ဘ঱͈ঘཌତ ͈ࡘઁȄݞ͍ࢃ́਀੅ͬຈါ̳̠͂ͥ̈́͢ેޙ̧̭̳ࣣͬ֨ܳ໵છ͈ࡘઁ̹̳ͬͣ͜ȃͺις ΃͉́Ȅॲشڠ͈ڠ໐௾ުࢃݞ͍ఱڠ֭ޗ͉֗Ȅ̷͈̠̈́͢ޗ͈֗ຈါͅ؊̲ͥ೾ഽ́͘ͅอ ో̱̞̞̀̈́62)_ȃ ȁ̷̱̀༭࣬੥͉Ȅոئ͈̭͂ͬۑ̱̹࣬ȃͤ͢ఉ̩͈ޗ֗ঔ୭̦ഐ୨̈́ॲشڠ͈ఱڠ֭ه೾ ͬ೹ރ̳̭ͥ͂ȄπȜυΛΩ߿͈ޗ֗ه೾̳͓͈ͬ̀֓ڠࢷͅڐಫ̳̭ͥ͂Ȅິ૽شڠͬॲش ڠͅັଟ̵̯̭ͥ͂Ȅڎఱڠ͈֓ڠࢷ͉Ȅ̱͜͜ఱڠ֭ޗ̧֗ͬ֨਋̫͈̜ͥ́ͦ͊Ȅڠ໐͂ ఱڠ͈֭ါݥͅ؊̲͈ͥͅ਱໦̈́ఱ̧̯͈ॲشພ֭ͬ๵̢̭ͥ͂Ȅܖயشڠͬਹণ̳̭ͥ͂Ȅ ֓ڠࢷ͈ޗ֥͉਀੅͈߱Ⴏͬ਋̫̞̭̀ͥ͂Ȅ̯ͣ߱ͅႯͬ਋̫̹ࡄݪ৪̜͈̦́ͥབ̱̞͘ ̭͂Ȅ੿ြ͈ڠ୆̦Ȅ਎ު͈଻ৗ͞ܢۼȄ৾ං̧̳̭̦ͥ͂́ͥ၎ਘબྶͅ۾̱̀ྶږͅ໦̥ ̠ͥ͢ͅȄ၎ਘه೾͈ܱ੆ْ֚ͬا̳̭ͥ͂Ȅఱڠ֭ه೾ͬ঵̾ڠࢷ͉ވ೒͈ड೩ܖ੔ͬ୭೰ ̳̭ͥ͂Ȅఱڠ֭঎ܐ৪͉Ȅ୺࿝֓Ȅޗ֥Ȅ̜̞͉ͥࡄݪ৪̱͂̀෇͛ͣͦͥஜͅȄ̷̱̀ڠ պͬ਎ဓ̯ͦͥஜͅȄෝႁ͈ܖ੔͂̈́ͥܖུഎါݥͬྖ̹̳̭͂Ȅਗၛఱڠ͉Ȅ౷༷͈֓঍̦ ड૧͈ૂ༭̞̞̩̹͈̾̀͛ͅ੘ٝ৆͈਎ުͬอജ̵̯̭ͥ͂Ȅഐ୨̈́߱Ⴏͬ਋̫̹֓঍͈͙ ̦ॲش୺࿝̱֓͂̀හྵ̯̭ͦͥ͂Ȅພ͉֭Ȅ਱໦ͅ঩ڒ͈̜ͥ୺࿝֓ոٸͅȄ૬࣫̈́ॲش͈ ࣣ໵છͅၛ̻̹ٛ̽ͤȄఱ̧̈́ॲش਀੅࣐̹̳̭ͬ̽ͤͥ͂ͬݺخ̱̞̭̈́͂Ȅ̜̈́̓́ͥ63)_ȃ

ȁ̭͈ॲشڠޗ֗ͅ۾̳ͥ಺औ༭࣬੥̥ͣȄ1930ාࣼͅॲش̦֓࿒ঐ̱̞̹̀ॲشڠޗ͈֗٨ ڟͬոئ͈̠͢ͅါ࿩̧̳̭̦ͥ͂́ͥȃවڠ঩ڒȆޗ֗ܢۼȆޗ֗୭๵Ȇޗ֗ඤယȆਘၭબ ͞ڠպ͈਎ဓ͈ૄ࠯̞͉̈́̓̾̀ͅڠࢷۼͅओ։̦ంह̳͈ͥ́Ȅ঎ܐ৪ͅ໦̥̳̞̠ͤ͢͞ ͅ၎ਘ༒။͈ܱ੆ْ֚ͬا̳̭ͥ͂ȃॲش͂ິ૽شͬൡࣣ̱̀Ȅ੫଻͈૸ఘݞ͍୆૓ܥෝ͈̳ ͓͈̀ଲდ̳ͬͥ୺࿝໦࿤̭̈́ͥ͂ͅȃॲشڠͬٸشڠ͂൳൝ͅບث̱Ȅॲشڠޗ֗̽͂͜ͅ ਱໦̈́শۼͬڬͤ൚̭̀ͥ͂ȃ਱໦̈́ႉ઄ޗ͈̹֗͛ͅȄॲشພ֭͂୭๵ͬା̢̀Ȅႉ઄ޗऺ ̱͂̀၌ဥخෝ̈́੄ॲۛ৪ͬ̽͂͜ఉ̩਋̫ව̭ͦͥ͂ȃఱڠ֭ޗ֗ͬ਋̫̹৪̦Ȅ୺࿝֓Ȇ ֓ڠࢷޗ֥Ȇࡄݪ৪̱͂̀෇̭͛ͣͦͥ͂ȃ୺࿝͈͙̦֓Ȅඳॲͅၛ̻̹ٛ̽ͤॲش਀੅࣐ͬ ̧̹̳̭̦̭̽ͤͥ͂́ͥ͂Ȅ̜̈́̓́ͥȃ̭̠̱̀ॲشڠޗ͉֗ȄΟςȜ֓঍ో̦৽ಫ̱̹ ̠͢ͅȄॲشڠͬࣞഽ̈́୺࿝૖̱͂̀୺࿝֓ͬူ଼̳༷ͥ࢜ͅૺ̞̩̭͈̜ͭ́͂̈́ͥ́ͥͅȃ

̤ͩͤͅ

ȁͺις΃͉́Ȅ18ଲܮࢃ฼̥ͣ੩ॲ੅Ȫmidwiferyȫ͈࣒ਠ̦੄࡛̱̹̦Ȅ൚শ͈ޗ͉࣒֗ ݅͂ճ੹̦ಎ૤̜́ͤȄ֓ڠ୆͉हڠಎͅ৘ष͈੄ॲ֚ͬഽ͜࿒̳̭̩ͥ͂̈́ͅȄ֓ڠࢷͬ௾ ު̱̀֓঍̧̱̞͂̀̈́ͤ੄ॲ͈࡛ાͅၛ̻̫̞̭̩̜̹ٛͩ̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́͂̽͜͢ȃॲشڠ ͈ႉ઄ޗ͉֗19ଲܮ฼͊ͅड੝ͅ൵ව̯̹̦ͦȄ๊֚ͅ20ଲܮ੝൮͉́͘၎ਘه೾ͅ܄͛ͣͦ ̥̹̈́̽ȃ18ଲܮ฼͊ոࣛ19ଲܮͬ೒̱̀Ȅ੩ॲ͈౜̞਀̦੩ॲ঍̥ͣ֓঍͒͂֊࣐̳̦ͥȄ ̷ͦͬخෝ̱̹͈͉ͅȄ౳଻֓঍͉੫଻̦਋̧̫̭͈̞ͥ͂́̈́֓ڠޗ֗ͬ਋̢̫̞̦̀ͥ͠ ͅȄհ஠́ౣশۼ́೑͙͈̞̈́੄ॲͬخෝ̳̞̠ͥ͂ͅ෇েͬȄ֓঍͜ॲິ͜༴̞̞̹̥̀ͣ ̜̹́̽ȃ̱̥̱̦̈́ͣȄ20ଲܮ੝൮͈֓ڠޗ֗ͅ۾̳ͥ಺औ͉Ȅͺις΃̤̫ͥͅॲشڠޗ ͈֗ౚ̥̱̞ͩેޙͬྶ̥̱̹ͣͅȃ̳̻̈́ͩȄॲشڠޗ਎͈ఉ̩͉ෝႁ̦̩̈́Ȅॲشڠޗ֗ ͈̹͈͛ޗ֗Ȇພ֭୭๵͉ະ਱໦̜́ͤȄ֓ڠ୆͉੩ॲ঍͂൳̲̩̞͈ͣ߱Ⴏ̱̥਋̫̞̀̈́ ̞̞̠͂ম৘̜́ͥȃ಺औ̽̀͢ͅྶ̥̯̹ͣͦͅॲشڠޗ͈̭͈̠֗̈́͢৘ఠ͉Ȅॲش֓ͅ ޗ͈֗٨ڟ͈ຈါ଻ͬޑ̩෇ে̵̯̭̹ͥ͂̈́̽ͅȃॲشڠޗ͈֗٨ڟ͈ຈါ଻͉̹͘Ȅ༦૶ ͂඿ဘ঱͈ঘཌၚͬ೩ئ̵̯̠̞̠ͥ͂͢ͅ২ٛഎգႁ̽̀͢͜ͅޑا̯̹ͦȃ20ଲܮ੝൮͘ ͕́͂ͭ̓۾૤ͬ໡̭̩ͩͦͥ͂̈́Ȅέτ·Α΢Ȝ༭̤̞࣬̀ͅȶड՛͈အ௖ͬ೮̱̞̀ͥȷ ͂ບث̯̹ͦॲشڠޗ͉֗Ȩ̭̭̏̀ͅఱ̧̩་ا̱ই̹͛ȃ ȁ੄ॲ͈୺࿝ز̱͂̀Ȅ֓ڠٮ̤̞̀ͅఈ͈୺࿝໦࿤͂൳൝͈౷պͬڕං̱̠̱̞̹͂̀͢ॲ ش͉֓Ȅ̷͈̹͛ͅȄॲشڠ̦ࣞഽ̈́୺࿝૖̜̭́ͥ͂ͬ৽ಫ̱̹ȃ̳̻̈́ͩȄ֓঍͉౗́͜ ੄ॲͬ਀ഥ̧̠̭͉̦͂́ͥȨ̻̱̹̏ͭ͂ޗ֗ͬ਋̫̹୺࿝ز̜́ͥॲش̺̫̦֓Ȅհ஠ͅ ੄ॲٚͅව̧̳̭̦ͥ͂́ͥȄ̞̠͈̜͂́ͥȃॲش਀੅͉ఈ͈ٸش਀੅͂൳̲̩̞ͣࣞഽ̈́ ܿ੅̜́ͤȄਲ̽̀ఈ͈ٸش਀੅͈̹͈͛ޗ֗͂൳̲̩̞͈ͣশۼ̦ॲشڠޗ͉֗ͅຈါ̜́ ̯̹ͥ͂ͦȃ̷̱̀ॲشڠ͈ႉ઄ޗ֗ͅຈါ̈́ޗऺͬږ༗̳̹ͥ͛ͅȄ̯ͣͅఉ̩͈ॲິͬॲ

شພ֭ͅ਋̫ව̠̹ͦͥ̈́̽͢ͅȃ̭̠̱̀1930ා͉ࣼͅȄॲشڠޗ͉֗ȄΟςȜ֓঍ో͈৽ ಫ̱̹̠̈́͢Ȅॲشڠͬࣞഽ̈́୺࿝૖̱͂̀୺࿝֓ͬူ଼̳̹͈ͥ͛ଷഽ̱͂̀ା̢̞ͣͦ̀ ̹̽ȃၰఱ୽ۼܢ͉ͅȄॲشڠޗ֗઀տ֥ٛ༭࣬੥̤̞̀ͅۑ̯̞̠࣬ͦ̀ͥ͢ͅȄ֓ڠࢷͅ ̤̞̀ॲش͂ິ૽ش͉੭șͅൡࣣ̯̞̹ͦ̀̽64)_ȃ ȁ1930ා͉ͅȄ˝˩˝͈ॲິ૽شȆໜ໐ٸشڠ໐ٛ͂ͺις΃ິ૽ش֓ڠٛȄͺις΃ॲິ૽ شȆໜ໐ٸش֓঍̦ࣣٛ໵̱̀Ȅͺις΃ॲິ૽شտ֥ٛͬอ௷̵̯Ȅॲິ૽ش໦࿤͈ޗ֗ݞ ͍঩ڒ෇೰ଷഽͬଷ೰̱̠̱̹͂͢ȃ1932ා́͘Ȅྴ୊̦̜ͤ෇೰̯̹ͦॲش͉֓Ȅ஻ই৪͂ ̱̀෇̹͛ͣͦȃॲشڠȆິ૽شڠ̤̞̀ͅ10ාۼ͈ࠐࡑͬ঵̾֓঍͉ȄܿၾȄ࢛੆Ȅႉ઄Ȅ ৘ࡑͬ܄͚দࡑࣣͅڒ̳ͦ͊෇̹͛ͣͦȃ૧͈ܰ୺࿝͉֓Ȅॲشڠ͈ୃܰޗ̦֗ါݥ̯ͦȄ२ ාۼ͈ڠ໐௾ުࢃޗ֗ͬ਋̫̀Ȅ୺࿝̱֓͂̀ઁ̩̈́͂͜ඵාۼ͈ࡄਘͬ਋̫̫̈́ͦ͊̈́ͣ̈́ ̥̹̽ȃ̞̥̈́ͥ୺࿝֓͜Ȅ੫଻ոٸ͈ۛ৪ͬ਋̫ව̧̭͉̥̹ͦͥ͂́̈́̽ȃ̭̠̱̀Ȅ਱ ໦̈́ޗ֗ͬ਋๊̢̫̹̯֚֓́͜Ȅտ֥͈ٛ෇೰̳ͥ঩ڒ৪̥͉ͣෳੰ̯̹ͦȃ̯ͣͅտ֥ٛ ͉Ȅພ͈֭ॲشڠ໐࿝͈૖ͬȄտ֥̦ٛ෇೰̱̹঩ڒ৪ͅࡠ೰̳̭ͥ͂ͤ͢ͅȄॲشڠ໦࿤ͅ ๊̤̫͈֚ͥ֓ڰ൲ͬଷࡠ̱̠̱̹͂͢ȃ1936ා́͘ͅտ֥͉ٛȄພ֭́হၷ̧̳̭̦ͥ͂́ ͥ৪̧̞͂́̈́৪ͬ෇೰̳ͥ́͘ͅࡀրͬڐఱ̱̹ȃ๊֚ఱਤ͜ພ͈֭ၑম͜Ȅ਱໦̈́߱Ⴏͬ ਋̫̹୺࿝̷̠̞֓͂́̈́৪ͬে༆̳ͥ਀౲̱͂̀Ȅ঩ڒ෇೰ͬ၌ဥ̳̠̹ͥ̈́̽͢ͅ65)_ȃ ȁ̷͈ࢃॲິ૽شڠ͈໦࿤͉Ȅ੫଻͈૸ఘ͂୆૓ܥෝ͈̳͓̀ͬ৾ͤե̠୺࿝૖̱̳͂̀͘͘ ̳ڐఱ̱Ȅ୆૓ඤ໦๥Ȅິ૽شਆនȄະළછȄਔॲܢȄႉ઄֒ഥȄࢵාܢ̷͈ఈ͈໗୺࿝໦࿤ ̦ഴા̳ͥȃ̭͈̠̈́͢ळ໦ا͉Ȅॲິ૽شڠ۾Ⴒ͈ڎ໦࿤ͬޗ̢͈ͥͅڎș͈̩̞͈̓ͣশ ۼͬڬͤ൚̀ͦ͊ၻ̞͈̥Ȅ̞̹̠͂̽̈́͢ޗ֗എ࿚ఴͬ೹̳̭̹ܳͥ͂̈́̽ͅȃ̷͉ͦȄॲ ິ૽شڠͅඅခ͈࿚ఴ͉̥̹́̈́̽ȃ୺࿝໦࿤͞໗୺࿝໦࿤̦௩ح̳ͥ͂ވͅȄ୺࿝໦࿤͈ຈ ਘশۼତ͜௖؊ͅ௩ح̱̹ȃ֓ڠࢷ͉́Ȅڎ୺࿝໦࿤̦̳̳͘͘ఉ̩͈਎ުͬ೹ރ̱̀਎ުশ ۼͬఉ̩ං̠͂͢௔̠̠̈́ͤ͢ͅȄ၎ਘه೾ً͉ྟا̱̞̹̀̽ȃఈ༷́ळ໦ا͉Ȅ୺࿝໦࿤ ͈ࡀրͬڐఱ̳ͥષ͈́ޑ͙̹̈́̽͜ͅȃ̭͈̠֓͢ͅၷ୺࿝૖͉Ȅ֓ڠޗ֗ͬ٨ڟ̳̭ͥ͂ ́Ȅহၷ͈ࡀր͂̈́ͤȄພ֭Ȇ֓ၷܿ੅Ȇۛ৪ͬ঑෻̳̠̹ͥ̈́̽͢ͅȃॲິ૽شڠ͜Ȅޗ֗ ͈କ੔ͬષ̬̀୺࿝૖̱͈͂̀ࡀրͬږၛ଼̳̭̱ͥ͂ࢗͅȄ̳̳͘͘ࢩํս̹ͩ̽̀ͅ২ٛ എୣහͬ໅̠୺࿝໦࿤̱͂̀Ȅ଼੃̱̞̩̭͈̜̀͂̈́ͥ́ͥͅȃ

ಕ

ˍȫWilliam Ray Arney, Power and the Profession of Obstetrics (Chicago and London: University of

Chicago Press,1985), 53. ̜ͥႤঃز͉ȄΟςȜ͂;ͻςͺθΒͬȄ20ଲܮॲشڠ͈ඵ૽͈ȶݴ૽Ȫtitansȫȷ

͂ࡤ̞ͭ́ͥȃD. N. Danforth,ȨContemporary Titans: Joseph Bolivar DeLee and John Whitridge Williams,ȩAmerican Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 120 (1975): 577-88. ̹͘ඵ૽̞͉̾̀ͅ ոئ͜४ચȃJudith Walzer Leavitt,ȨJoseph B. DeLee and the Practice of Preventive Obstetrics,ȩ

American Journal of Public Health 78(1988): 1353-60; Harold Speert,ȨMemorable Medical Mentors: IV. John Whitridge Williams (1866-1931),ȩObstetrical and Gynecological Survey 59(2004): 311-18. ˎ) ͺις΃̤̫ͥͅॲشڠޗ͈֗Ⴄঃͅ۾̱͉̀ոئͬ४ચȃLawrence D. Longo,ȨObstetrics and

Gynecology,ȩin The Education of American Physicians: Historical Essays, ed. Ronald L. Numbers

(Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of California Press,1980). ͺις΃́ड੝͈੩ॲ੅

Ȫmidwiferyȫ͈࣒͉݅Ȅ1765ාͅ;ͻςͺθȆΏΛβϋȆΐνΣͺȪWilliam Shippen, Jr.ȫ̽̀͢ͅ ࣐̹ͩͦȃΏΛβϋͅ۾̱͉̀ոئͬ४ચȃBetsy Copping Corner, William Shippen, Jr.: Pioneer in

American Medical Education (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society,1951).

ˏȫRosemary Stevens, American Medicine and the Public Interest, Updated Edition with a New

Introduction (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,1998[1971]), 63-66.

ːȫThomas Neville Bonner, Iconoclast: Abraham Flexner and a Life in Learning (Baltimore and

London: John s Hopkins University Press,2002).

ˑȫAbraham Flexner, Medical Education in the United States and Canada: A Report to the Carnegie

Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (New York: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement

of Teaching,1910).ͺις΃̤̫ͥ֓ͅڠޗ͈֗Ⴄঃͅ۾̱͉̀ոئͬ४ચȃBarbara Barzansky and

Norman Gevitz, eds., Beyond Flexner: Medical Education in the Twentieth Century (New York,

Westport, and London: Greenwood Press,1992); Kenneth M. Ludmerer, Learning to Heal: The

Development of American Medical Education (Baltimore and London: John s Hopkins University

Press,1985); Kenneth M. Ludmerer, Time to Heal: American Medical Education from the Turn

of the Century to the Era of Managed Care (New York: Oxford University Press,1999); Ronald L. Numbers, ed., The Education of American Physicians: Historical Essays (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and

London: University of California Press,1980).

˒ȫFlexner, Medical Education in the United States and Canada, 117-18.

˓ȫJohn Whitridge Williams,ȨThe Midwife Problem and Medical Education in the United States,ȩ

Transactions of the American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality 2 (1912), 165.

˔ȫIbid., 182. ˕ȫIbid., 192.

10ȫGrace L. Meigs, Maternal Mortality from All Conditions Connected with Childbirth in the United

States and Certain Other Countries (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, Children's

Bureau Publication, No.19, 1917).

11ȫS. Josephine Baker,ȨMaternal Mortality in the United States,ȩJournal of the American

Medical Association89 (1927), 2016. 12ȫLongo,ȨObstetrics and Gynecology,ȩ224.

13ȫVirginia G. Drachman,ȨThe Loomis Trial: Social Mores and Obstetrics in the Mid-Nineteenth Century,ȩin Women and Health in America: Historical Readings, ed., Judith Walzer Leavitt

(Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press,1984): 166-74.

and London: Harvard University Press,1995), 97. 15ȫIbid., 100.

16ȫStanley P. Warren,ȨThe Prevalence of Puerperal Septicemia in Private Practice,ȩ American

Journal of Obstetrics and Diseases of Women and Children51 (1905), 302.

17ȫFlorence Sherbon, in Discussion of Session on Obstetrics, Transactions of the American

Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality7 (1917), 64. 18ȫBoast, Catching Babies, 100.

19ȫLudmerer, Learning to Heal, 310, n27. 20ȫBorst, Catching Babies, 99.

21ȫIbid., 100.

22ȫWilliams,ȨThe Midwife Problem and Medical Education in the United States,ȩ188-89.

23ȫCharles A. Gordon,ȨThe Conduct of Labor and the Management of Obstetric Emergencies,ȩ

American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology13 (1927), 505.

24ȫJoseph Bolivar DeLee,ȨThe Prophylactic Forceps Operation,ȩAmerican Journal of Obstetrics and

Gynecology1 (1920), 44.

25ȫEdward P. Davis,ȨModern Obstetrics, with Relation to the General Practitioner, the Student, the Midwife and the Specialist,ȩJournal of the American Medical Association 59 (1912), 22-23. 26ȫGeorge Gray Ward,ȨOur Obstetric and Gynecologic Responsibilities,ȩJournal of the American

Medical Association 87 (1926), 1.

27ȫPalmer Findley,ȨThe Teaching of Obstetrics,ȩAmerican Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 16 (1928), 613.

28ȫIbid., 615-16. 29ȫIbid., 611.

30ȫReuben Peterson,ȨThe Future of Obstetrics and Gynecology as a Specialty,ȩJournal of the

American Medical Association74 (1920), 1362.

31ȫJohn Osborn Polak,ȨThe Defects in Our Obstetric Teaching,ȩ Journal of the American Medical

Association76 (1921), 1809.

32ȫFrank W. Lynch,ȨThe Specialty of Gynecology and Obstetrics,ȩ Journal of the American

Medical Association 83 (1924), 398.

33ȫFindley,ȨThe Teaching of Obstetrics,ȩ611.

34ȫB. P. Watson,ȨCan Our Methods of Obstetric Practice Be Improved?ȩ Bulletin of the New York

Academy of Medicine6 (1930), 649-50.

35ȫ੄ॲ͈ພ֭اͅ۾̱͉̀ոئͬ४ચȃ઀࿤ೄঊȶͺις΃ࣣਤ࣭̤̫ͥͅ੄ॲ͈ພ֭ا͂ॲشڠ͈ర ൮ȷȸີ५ఱڠ૽໲ڠ໐ܮါȹ37(2002): 37-57ȃ

36ȫPamela S. Summey and Marsh Hurst,ȨOb/Gyn on the Rise: The Evolution of Professional Ideology in the Twentieth Century,ȩWomen and Health, Part 1, 11-1 (1986): 133-45; Part 2, 11-2 (1986): 102-22, citation, part 1, 138, and part 2, 104.

37ȫWilliams,ȨThe Midwife Problem and Medical Education in the United States,ȩ189.

38ȫJoseph Bolivar DeLee,ȨProgress toward Ideal Obstetrics,ȩTransactions of the American

Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality 6 (1916), 116.

39ȫJoseph Bolivar DeLee, in Discussion on Edward P. Davis,ȨThe Spring of a Nation s Life,ȩ

Transactions of the American Association for the Study and Prevention of Infant Mortality9 (1919), 114.

40ȫDeLee,ȨThe Prophylactic Forceps Operation,ȩ40. 41ȫIbid.ȩ43.

42ȫGeorge Clark Mosher,ȨTen Years of Painless Childbirth,ȩAmerican Journal of Obstetrics and

Gynecology3 (1921), 142-43.

43ȫR. F. Skeel,ȨPresidential Address: American Association of Obstetricians, Gynecologists and Abdominal Surgeons,ȩAmerican Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 5 (1923), 112.

44ȫLynch,ȨThe Specialty of Gynecology and Obstetrics,ȩ398. 45ȫWard,ȨOur Obstetric and Gynecologic Responsibilities,ȩ1.

46ȫB. P. Watson,ȨThe Responsibility of the Obstetric Teaching in Relation to Maternal Mortality and Morbidity,ȩAmerican Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 14 (1927), 279-80.

47ȫIbid., 280.

48ȫJoseph Bolivar DeLee, Comment on George Clark Mosher,ȨReport of the Committee on Maternal Welfare of the American Association of Obstetricians, Gynecologists and Abdominal Surgeons,ȩAmerican Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 9 (1925).

49ȫPolak,ȨThe Defects in Our Obstetric Teaching,ȩ1809.

50ȫA. M. Mendenhall,ȨThe Teaching of Operative Obstetrics,ȩAmerican Journal of Obstetrics and

Gynecology17 (1929), 586. 51ȫIbid., 587.

52ȫȨThe White House Conference on Child Health and Protection: Foreword,ȩAmerican Journal of

Obstetrics and Gynecology21 (1931), 765.

53ȫJudy Barrett Litoff, American Midwives: 1860 to the Present (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1978), 108.

54ȫWhite House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Obstetric Education: Report of the

Subcommittee on Obstetric Teaching and Education (New York and London: The Century Co.,1932). లඵॗ࿒͉Ȅథ঱Ȇ඿ဘ঱Ȇළॲິ͈ঘཌၚ͂ᑋພၚͅ۾̳ͥ಺औ༭࣬੥́Ȅ1933ාͅ੄ๅ̯̹ͦȃ White House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Fetal, Newborn, and Maternal Mortality

and Morbidity (New York: Appleton-Century,1933). ̭͈༭࣬੥ͅ۾̱͉̀ոئͬ४ચȃ઀࿤ೄঊȶͺ

ις΃ࣣਤ࣭̤̫ͥͅළॲິঘཌၚ͂ॲش֓ၷଽॐȷȸີ५ఱڠ૽໲ڠ໐ܮါȹ45Ȫ2006ȫ: 71-84ȃ 55ȫWhite House Conference on Child Health and Protection, Obstetric Education, 8.

56ȫոئȄڠ໐ޗ֗ͅ۾̳ͥৗ࿚ນͅచ̳ͥٝ൞̞͉̾̀ͅȄIbid., 24-43. 57ȫIbid., 44-46. 58ȫIbid., 51-52. 59ȫIbid., 55. 60ȫIbid., 57. 61ȫոئȄڠ໐௾ުࢃݞ͍ఱڠ֭ޗ֗ͅ۾̳ͥ಺औ༭̞͉࣬̾̀ͅȄIbid., 58-87. 62ȫIbid., 88-89. 63ȫIbid., 89-90.

64ȫLongo,ȨObstetrics and Gynecology,ȩ225. 65ȫBorst, Catching Babies, 114-15, 149-50.

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